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REPORTABLE

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

CIVIL ORIGINAL JURISDICTION

WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO.400 OF 2012

National Legal Services Authority                  …  

Petitioner

Versus

Union of India and others                         …  

Respondents

WITH

WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO.604 OF 2013

J U D G M E N T

K.S. Radhakrishnan, J.

1. Seldom, our society realizes or cares to realize the  

trauma,  agony  and  pain  which  the  members  of  

Transgender  community  undergo,  nor  appreciates  the  

innate  feelings  of  the  members  of  the  Transgender

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community,  especially  of  those  whose  mind  and  body  

disown their biological sex.  Our society often ridicules and  

abuses the Transgender community and in public places  

like  railway  stations,  bus  stands,  schools,  workplaces,  

malls, theatres, hospitals, they are sidelined and treated  

as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure  

lies in the society’s unwillingness to contain or embrace  

different  gender  identities  and  expressions,  a  mindset  

which we have to change.

2. We are, in this case, concerned with the grievances  

of the members of Transgender Community (for short ‘TG  

community’) who seek a legal declaration of their gender  

identity than the one assigned to them, male or female, at  

the time of birth and their prayer is that non-recognition of  

their  gender  identity  violates  Articles  14 and 21 of  the  

Constitution of India.   Hijras/Eunuchs, who also fall in that  

group, claim legal status as a third gender with all legal  

and constitutional protection.    

3. The  National  Legal  Services  Authority,  constituted  

under the Legal Services Authority Act, 1997, to provide

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free legal services to the weaker and other marginalized  

sections  of  the  society,  has  come  forward  to  advocate  

their  cause,  by  filing  Writ  Petition  No.  400  of  2012.  

Poojaya  Mata  Nasib  Kaur  Ji  Women  Welfare  Society,  a  

registered association, has also preferred Writ Petition No.  

604 of 2013, seeking similar reliefs in respect of Kinnar  

community, a TG community.

4. Laxmi Narayan Tripathy, claimed to be a Hijra, has  

also  got  impleaded  so  as  to  effectively  put  across  the  

cause of the members of the transgender community and  

Tripathy’s  life  experiences  also  for  recognition  of  their  

identity  as  a  third  gender,  over  and  above  male  and  

female.   Tripathy says that non-recognition of the identity  

of Hijras, a TG community, as a third gender,  denies them  

the right of equality before the law and equal protection of  

law guaranteed under Article 14 of the Constitution and  

violates the rights guaranteed to them under Article 21 of  

the Constitution of India.   

5. Shri  Raju  Ramachandran,  learned  senior  counsel  

appearing for the petitioner – the National Legal Services

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Authority, highlighted the traumatic experiences faced by  

the  members  of  the TG community  and submitted  that  

every person of that community has a legal right to decide  

their sex orientation and to espouse and determine their  

identity.  Learned senior counsel has submitted that since  

the TGs are neither treated as male or female, nor given  

the status of a third gender, they are being deprived of  

many  of  the  rights  and  privileges  which  other  persons  

enjoy  as  citizens  of  this  country.   TGs  are  deprived  of  

social  and  cultural  participation  and  hence  restricted  

access to education, health care and public places which  

deprives them of the Constitutional guarantee of equality  

before law and equal protection of laws.  Further, it was  

also  pointed  out  that  the  community  also  faces  

discrimination  to  contest  election,  right  to  vote,  

employment, to get licences etc. and, in effect, treated as  

an outcast and untouchable.   Learned senior counsel also  

submitted that the State cannot discriminate them on the  

ground of gender, violating Articles 14 to 16 and 21 of the  

Constitution of India.   

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6. Shri Anand Grover, learned senior counsel appearing  

for the Intervener, traced the historical background of the  

third gender identity in India and the position accorded to  

them  in  the  Hindu  Mythology,  Vedic  and  Puranic  

literatures, and the prominent role played by them in the  

royal courts of the Islamic world etc.  Reference was also  

made  to  the  repealed  Criminal  Tribes  Act,  1871  and  

explained  the  inhuman  manner  by  which  they  were  

treated at the time of the British Colonial rule.  Learned  

senior  counsel  also  submitted  that  various  International  

Forums  and  U.N.  Bodies  have  recognized  their  gender  

identity  and  referred  to  the  Yogyakarta  Principles  and  

pointed out that those principles have been recognized by  

various countries around the world.   Reference was also  

made to few legislations giving recognition to the trans-

sexual persons in other countries.   Learned senior counsel  

also submitted that non-recognition of gender identity of  

the  transgender  community  violates  the  fundamental  

rights  guaranteed  to  them,  who  are  citizens  of  this  

country.

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7. Shri T. Srinivasa Murthy, learned counsel appearing  

in I.A. No. 2 of 2013, submitted that transgender persons  

have  to  be  declared  as  a  socially  and  educationally  

backward  classes  of  citizens  and  must  be  accorded  all  

benefits available to that class of persons, which are being  

extended to male and female genders.  Learned counsel  

also  submitted  that  the  right  to  choose  one’s  gender  

identity is integral to the right to lead a life with dignity,  

which  is  undoubtedly  guaranteed  by  Article  21  of  the  

Constitution  of  India.   Learned  counsel,  therefore,  

submitted  that,  subject  to  such  

rules/regulations/protocols,  transgender  persons  may  be  

afforded the right of choice to determine whether to opt  

for male, female or transgender classification.

8. Shri  Sanjeev Bhatnagar,  learned counsel  appearing  

for  the  petitioner  in  Writ  Petition  No.604  of  2013,  

highlighted  the  cause  of  the  Kinnar  community  and  

submitted  that  they  are  the  most  deprived  group  of  

transgenders and calls for constitutional as well as legal  

protection for their identity and for other socio-economic

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benefits, which are otherwise extended to the members of  

the male and female genders in the community.    

9. Shri  Rakesh  K.  Khanna,  learned Additional  Solicitor  

General, appearing for the Union of India, submitted that  

the problems highlighted by the transgender community is  

a sensitive human issue, which calls for serious attention.  

Learned  ASG  pointed  out  that,  under  the  aegis  of  the  

Ministry  of  Social  Justice  and  Empowerment  (for  short  

“MOSJE”),  a  Committee,  called  “Expert  Committee  on  

Issues relating to Transgender”,  has been constituted to  

conduct  an  in-depth  study  of  the  problems  relating  to  

transgender  persons  to  make  appropriate  

recommendations to MOSJE.  Shri Khanna also submitted  

that  due  representation  would  also  be  given  to  the  

applicants, appeared before this Court in the Committee,  

so that their views also could be heard.

 10. We also heard learned counsel appearing for various  

States and Union Territories who have explained the steps  

they have taken to improve the conditions and status of  

the members of TG community in their respective States

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and Union Territories.   Laxmi Narayan Tripathy, a Hijra,  

through a petition supported by an affidavit,  highlighted  

the trauma undergone by Tripathy from Tripathy’s birth.  

Rather  than  explaining  the  same  by  us,  it  would  be  

appropriate to quote in Tripathy’s own words:

“That the Applicant has born as a male.  Growing  up as a child, she felt different from the boys of  her  age  and  was  feminine  in  her  ways.   On  account of her femininity, from an early age, she  faced repeated sexual  harassment,  molestation  and sexual  abuse,  both within  and outside  the  family.  Due  to  her  being  different,  she  was  isolated and had no one to talk to or express her  feelings while she was coming to terms with her  identity.  She was constantly abused by everyone  as a  ‘chakka’   and  ‘hijra’.  Though she felt that  there was no place for her in society, she did not  succumb to the prejudice.  She started to dress  and appear in public in women’s clothing in her  late teens but she did not identify as a woman.  Later, she joined the Hijra community in Mumbai  as she identified with the other hijras and for the  first time in her life, she felt at home.

That  being  a  hijra,  the  Applicant  has  faced  serious  discrimination  throughout  her  life  because of her gender identity.  It has been clear  to  the  Applicant  that  the  complete  non- recognition of  the identity  of  hijras/transgender  persons by the State has resulted in the violation  of most of the fundamental rights guaranteed to  them under the Constitution of India….”

Siddarth  Narrain,  eunuch,  highlights  Narrain’s  

feeling, as follows:

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”Ever  since  I  can  remember,  I  have  always  identified  myself  as  a  woman.   I  lived  in  Namakkal, a small town in Tamil Nadu.  When I  was in the 10th standard I realized that the only  way  for  me to  be  comfortable  was  to  join  the  hijra  community.   It  was  then  that  my  family  found out that I frequently met hijras who lived in  the city.  One day, when my father was away, my  brother,  encouraged  by  my  mother,  started  beating me with a cricket bat.  I locked myself in  a room to escape from the beatings.   My mother  and brother then tried to break into the room to  beat  me  up  further.    Some  of  my  relatives  intervened and brought me out of the room.  I  related my ordeal to an uncle of mine who gave  me Rs.50 and asked me to go home.  Instead, I  took the money and went to live with a group of  hijras in Erode.”

Sachin, a TG, expressed his experiences as follows:

“My name is Sachin and I am 23 years old.   As a  child  I  always  enjoyed  putting  make-up  like  ‘vibhuti’  or  ‘kum kum’  and  my  parents  always  saw me as a girl.    I  am male but I  only have  female feelings.  I used to help my mother in all  the  housework  like  cooking,  washing  and  cleaning.   Over  the  years,  I  started  assuming  more  of  the  domestic  responsibilities  at  home.  The neighbours starting teasing me.  They would  call  out to me and ask: ‘Why don’t you go out  and work like a man?’  or ‘Why are you staying at  home like a girl?’   But I liked being a girl.  I felt  shy  about  going  out  and  working.   Relatives  would  also  mock  and  scold  me  on  this  score.  Every day I would go out of the house to bring  water.   And as  I  walked back with the water  I  would always be teased.  I felt very ashamed. I  even  felt  suicidal.   How  could  I  live  like  that?  But  my  parents  never  protested.   They  were  helpless.”

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We  have  been  told  and  informed  of  similar  life  

experiences faced by various others who belong to the TG  

community.

11.   Transgender  is  generally  described  as  an  umbrella  

term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression  

or behavior does not conform to their biological sex. TG  

may also takes in persons who do not identify with their  

sex assigned at birth, which include Hijras/Eunuchs who, in  

this  writ  petition,  describe themselves as “third gender”  

and they do not identify as either male or female.  Hijras  

are  not  men  by  virtue  of  anatomy  appearance  and  

psychologically, they are also not women, though they are  

like  women  with  no  female  reproduction  organ  and  no  

menstruation.    Since  Hijras  do  not  have  reproduction  

capacities as either men or women, they are neither men  

nor women and claim to be an institutional “third gender”.  

Among Hijras, there are emasculated (castrated, nirvana)  

men, non-emasculated men (not castrated/akva/akka) and  

inter-sexed  persons  (hermaphrodites).   TG also  includes

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persons  who  intend  to  undergo  Sex  Re-Assignment  

Surgery  (SRS)  or  have  undergone  SRS to  align  their  

biological sex with their gender identity in order to become  

male  or  female.   They  are  generally  called  transsexual  

persons. Further, there are persons who like to cross-dress  

in  clothing  of  opposite  gender,  i.e  transvestites.  

Resultantly,  the  term  “transgender”,  in  contemporary  

usage,  has  become  an  umbrella  term  that  is  used  to  

describe  a  wide  range  of  identities  and  experiences,  

including but not limited to pre-operative, post-operative  

and  non-operative  transsexual  people,  who  strongly  

identify with the gender opposite to their biological sex;  

male and female.    

HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  TRANSGENDERS  IN  INDIA:

12. TG Community comprises of  Hijras,  eunuchs,  Kothis,   

Aravanis,  Jogappas,  Shiv-Shakthis etc.  and  they,  as  a  

group, have got a strong historical presence in our country  

in the Hindu mythology and other religious texts.    The  

Concept of  tritiya prakrti  or  napunsaka has also been an

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integral  part  of vedic and puranic literatures.   The word  

‘napunsaka’   has  been  used  to  denote  absence  of  

procreative capability.      

13. Lord Rama, in the epic Ramayana, was leaving for the  

forest upon being banished from the kingdom for 14 years,  

turns around to his followers and asks all  the ‘men and  

women’  to  return to the city.   Among his  followers,  the  

hijras alone do not feel bound by this direction and decide  

to  stay with  him.   Impressed with  their  devotion,  Rama  

sanctions them the power to confer blessings on people on  

auspicious occasions like childbirth and marriage, and also  

at inaugural functions which, it is believed set the stage for  

the  custom  of  badhai in  which  hijras  sing,  dance  and  

confer blessings.     

14. Aravan,  the  son  of  Arjuna  and  Nagakanya  in  

Mahabharata,  offers  to  be  sacrificed  to  Goddess  Kali  to  

ensure the victory of the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra war,  

the  only  condition  that  he  made was  to  spend the  last  

night  of  his  life  in  matrimony.     Since  no  woman was  

willing to marry one who was doomed to be killed, Krishna

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assumes the form of a beautiful woman called Mohini and  

marries him.   The Hijras of Tamil Nadu consider Aravan  

their progenitor and call themselves Aravanis.    

15. Jain Texts also make a detailed reference to TG which  

mentions the concept of ‘psychological sex’.   Hijras also  

played a prominent role in the royal courts of the Islamic  

world, especially in the Ottaman empires and the Mughal  

rule  in  the  Medieval  India.    A  detailed  analysis  of  the  

historical background of the same finds a place in the book  

of Gayatri Reddy, “With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra  

Identity in South India” – Yoda Press (2006).

16. We  notice  that  even  though  historically,  

Hijras/transgender persons had played a prominent role,  

with  the  onset  of  colonial  rule  from  the  18th century  

onwards, the situation had changed drastically.    During  

the British rule, a legislation was enacted to supervise the  

deeds of  Hijras/TG community, called the Criminal Tribes  

Act, 1871, which deemed the entire community of  Hijras  

persons  as  innately  ‘criminal’  and  ‘addicted  to  the  

systematic commission of non-bailable offences’.    The Act

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provided for  the registration,  surveillance and control  of  

certain  criminal  tribes  and  eunuchs  and  had  penalized  

eunuchs,  who  were  registered,  and  appeared  to  be  

dressed or ornamented like a woman, in a public street or  

place, as well as those who danced or played music in a  

public place.  Such persons also could be arrested without  

warrant and sentenced to imprisonment up to two years or  

fine or both.   Under the Act, the local government had to  

register the names and residence of all eunuchs residing in  

that  area  as  well  as  of  their  properties,  who  were  

reasonably suspected of kidnapping or castrating children,  

or of committing offences under Section 377 of the IPC, or  

of  abetting the commission of  any of  the said offences.  

Under the Act, the act of keeping a boy under 16 years in  

the charge of a registered eunuch was made an offence  

punishable with imprisonment up to two years or fine and  

the Act also denuded the registered eunuchs of their civil  

rights  by  prohibiting  them  from  acting  as  guardians  to  

minors, from making a gift deed or a will, or from adopting  

a son.  Act has, however, been repealed in August 1949.

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17. Section 377 of  the IPC found a place in  the Indian  

Penal  Code,  1860,  prior  to  the  enactment  of  Criminal  

Tribles Act that criminalized all penile-non-vaginal sexual  

acts between persons, including anal sex and oral sex, at a  

time  when  transgender  persons  were  also  typically  

associated  with  the  prescribed  sexual  practices.  

Reference may be made to the judgment of the Allahabad  

High Court in  Queen Empress v. Khairati  (1884) ILR 6  

All  204, wherein a transgender person was arrested and  

prosecuted under Section 377 on the suspicion that he was  

a ‘habitual sodomite’ and was later acquitted on appeal.  

In  that  case,  while  acquitting  him,  the  Sessions  Judge  

stated as follows:

“This  case relates  to  a  person named Khairati,  over  whom the police  seem to  have exercised  some sort of supervision, whether strictly regular  or not, as a eunuch.  The man is not a eunuch in  the  literal  sense,  but  he  was called  for  by  the  police  when  on  a  visit  to  his  village,  and  was  found singing  dressed as  a  woman among the  women  of  a  certain  family.   Having  been  subjected  to  examination  by  the  Civil  Surgeon  (and a subordinate medical man), he is shown to  have  the  characteristic  mark  of  a  habitual  catamite – the distortion of the orifice of the anus  into  the  shape  of  a  trumpet  and  also  to  be  affected  with  syphilis  in  the  same  region  in  a

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manner  which  distinctly  points  to  unnatural  intercourse within the last few months.”  

18. Even though, he was acquitted on appeal, this case  

would  demonstrate  that  Section  377,  though  associated  

with  specific  sexual  acts,  highlighted  certain  identities,  

including  Hijras and  was  used  as  an  instrument  of  

harassment  and  physical  abuse  against  Hijras and  

transgender persons.    A Division Bench of this Court in  

Suresh  Kumar  Koushal  and  another v.  Naz  

Foundation and others [(2014)  1  SCC 1]  has  already  

spoken  on  the  constitutionality  of  Section  377  IPC  and,  

hence, we express no opinion on it since we are in these  

cases  concerned  with  an  altogether  different  issue  

pertaining to the constitutional  and other  legal  rights of  

the transgender community and their gender identity and  

sexual orientation.   

GENDER IDENTITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION

19. Gender  identity  is  one  of  the  most-fundamental  

aspects of life which refers to a person’s intrinsic sense of  

being male, female or transgender or transsexual person.

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A person’s sex is usually assigned at birth, but a relatively  

small  group  of  persons  may  born  with  bodies  which  

incorporate  both  or  certain  aspects  of  both  male  and  

female  physiology.   At  times,  genital  anatomy problems  

may arise  in  certain  persons,  their  innate  perception  of  

themselves, is not in conformity with the sex assigned to  

them  at  birth  and  may  include  pre  and  post-operative  

transsexual persons and also persons who do not choose  

to undergo or do not have access to operation and also  

include persons who cannot undergo successful operation.  

Countries, all over the world, including India, are grappled  

with the question of attribution of gender to persons who  

believe that they belong to the opposite sex.  Few persons  

undertake  surgical  and  other  procedures  to  alter  their  

bodies  and  physical  appearance  to  acquire  gender  

characteristics  of  the  sex  which  conform  to  their  

perception  of  gender,  leading  to  legal  and  social  

complications since official record of their gender at birth  

is  found  to  be  at  variance  with  the  assumed  gender  

identity. Gender identity refers to each person’s deeply felt  

internal and individual experience of gender, which may or

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may  not  correspond  with  the  sex  assigned  at  birth,  

including  the  personal  sense  of  the  body  which  may  

involve a freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance  

or functions by medical, surgical or other means and other  

expressions  of  gender,  including  dress,  speech  and  

mannerisms.  Gender  identity,  therefore,  refers  to  an  

individual’s  self-identification  as  a  man,  woman,  

transgender or other identified category.

20. Sexual orientation refers to an individual’s enduring  

physical, romantic and/or emotional attraction to another  

person.   Sexual  orientation  includes  transgender  and  

gender-variant people with heavy sexual orientation and  

their sexual orientation may or may not change during or  

after  gender  transmission,  which  also  includes  homo-

sexuals,  bysexuals,  heterosexuals,  asexual  etc.   Gender  

identity and sexual orientation, as already indicated, are  

different  concepts.   Each  person’s  self-defined  sexual  

orientation  and  gender  identity  is  integral  to  their  

personality and is one of the most basic aspects of self-

determination, dignity and freedom and no one shall  be

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forced  to  undergo  medical  procedures,  including  SRS,  

sterilization  or  hormonal  therapy,  as  a  requirement  for  

legal recognition of their gender identity.   

UNITED  NATIONS  AND  OTHER  HUMAN  RIGHTS  BODIES  –  ON  GENDER  IDENTITY  AND  SEXUAL  ORIENTATION

21. United Nations has been instrumental in advocating  

the  protection  and  promotion  of  rights  of  sexual  

minorities, including transgender persons.   Article 6 of the  

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 and Article  

16  of  the  International  Covenant  on  Civil  and  Political  

Rights,  1966 (ICCPR) recognize that every human being  

has  the  inherent  right  to  live  and  this  right  shall  be  

protected  by  law  and  that  no  one  shall  be  arbitrarily  

denied  of  that  right.   Everyone  shall  have  a  right  to  

recognition,  everywhere  as  a  person  before  the  law.  

Article  17  of  the  ICCPR  states  that  no  one  shall  be  

subjected  to  arbitrary  or  unlawful  interference  with  his  

privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful  

attacks on his honour and reputation and that everyone  

has the right to protection of law against such interference

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or  attacks.  International  Commission  of  Jurists  and  the  

International  Service  for  Human  Rights  on  behalf  of  a  

coalition of human rights organizations, took a project to  

develop  a  set  of  international  legal  principles  on  the  

application of international law to human rights violations  

based on sexual orientation and sexual identity to bring  

greater  clarity  and  coherence  to  State’s  human  rights  

obligations.    A  distinguished  group  of  human  rights  

experts has drafted, developed, discussed and reformed  

the principles in a meeting held at Gadjah Mada University  

in  Yogyakarta,  Indonesia  from 6  to  9  November,  2006,  

which is  unanimously adopted the Yogyakarta Principles  

on the application of International Human Rights Law in  

relation  to  Sexual  Orientation  and  Gender  Identity.  

Yogyakarta  Principles  address  a  broad  range  of  human  

rights standards and their application to issues of sexual  

orientation gender identity.   Reference to few Yogyakarta  

Principles would be useful.    

YOGYAKARTA PRINCIPLES:

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22. Principle 1 which deals with the right to the universal  

enjoyment of human rights, reads as follows :-

“1. THE  RIGHT  TO  THE  UNIVERSAL  ENJOYMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

All  human  beings  are  born  free  and  equal  in  dignity  and  rights.  Human beings  of  all  sexual  orientations and gender identities are entitled to  the full enjoyment of all human rights.

States shall:

A.   Embody  the  principles  of  the  universality,  interrelatedness,  interdependence  and  indivisibility  of  all  human  rights  in  their  national  constitutions  or  other  appropriate  legislation  and  ensure  the  practical  realisation of the universal enjoyment of all  human rights;

B. Amend  any  legislation,  including  criminal  law,  to  ensure  its  consistency  with  the  universal enjoyment of all human rights;

C. Undertake  programmes  of  education  and  awareness to promote and enhance the full  enjoyment  of  all  human  rights  by  all  persons, irrespective of sexual orientation or  gender identity;

D. Integrate within  State policy  and decision- making  a  pluralistic  approach  that  recognises and affirms the interrelatedness  and  indivisibility  of  all  aspects  of  human  identity  including  sexual  orientation  and  gender identity.

2. THE  RIGHTS  TO  EQUALITY  AND  NON- DISCRIMINATION

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Everyone  is  entitled  to  enjoy  all  human  rights  without  discrimination  on  the  basis  of  sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity.  Everyone  is  entitled to equality before the law and the equal  protection  of  the  law  without  any  such  discrimination whether or not the enjoyment of  another  human  right  is  also  affected.  The  law  shall  prohibit  any  such  discrimination  and  guarantee  to  all  persons  equal  and  effective  protection against any such discrimination.  

Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation  or  gender  identity  includes  any  distinction,  exclusion,  restriction  or  preference  based  on  sexual orientation or gender identity which has  the  purpose or  effect  of  nullifying  or  impairing  equality before the law or the equal protection of  the  law,  or  the  recognition,  enjoyment  or  exercise, on an equal basis, of all human rights  and fundamental freedoms. Discrimination based  on sexual orientation or gender identity may be,  and commonly is, compounded by discrimination  on  other  grounds  including  gender,  race,  age,  religion, disability, health and economic status.

States shall:

A. Embody  the  principles  of  equality  and  non- discrimination  on  the  basis  of  sexual  orientation  and  gender  identity  in  their  national  constitutions  or  other  appropriate  legislation,  if  not  yet  incorporated  therein,  including  by  means  of  amendment  and  interpretation,  and  ensure  the  effective  realisation of these principles;

B. Repeal criminal and other legal provisions that  prohibit or are, in effect, employed to prohibit  consensual  sexual  activity  among  people  of  the same sex who are over the age of consent,

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and  ensure  that  an  equal  age  of  consent  applies  to  both  same-sex  and  different-  sex  sexual activity;

C. Adopt  appropriate  legislative  and  other  measures  to  prohibit  and  eliminate  discrimination  in  the  public  and  private  spheres on the basis of sexual orientation and  gender identity;  

D. Take  appropriate  measures  to  secure  adequate advancement of persons of diverse  sexual  orientations  and  gender  identities  as  may be necessary  to  ensure such groups or  individuals  equal  enjoyment  or  exercise  of  human  rights.   Such  measures  shall  not  be  deemed to be discriminatory;

E.  In all their responses to discrimination on the  basis of sexual orientation or gender identity,  take  account  of  the  manner  in  which  such  discrimination may intersect with other forms  of discrimination;

F.  Take  all  appropriate  action,  including  programmes of education and training, with a  view to achieving the elimination of prejudicial  or discriminatory attitudes or behaviours which  are related to the idea of the inferiority or the  superiority of any sexual orientation or gender  identity or gender expression.

3. THE  RIGHT  TO  RECOGNITION  BEFORE  THE LAW

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere  as a person before the law. Persons of diverse  sexual  orientations  and  gender  identities  shall  enjoy legal  capacity in  all  aspects of  life.  Each  person’s  self-defined  sexual  orientation  and  gender identity is integral to their personality and

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is  one  of  the  most  basic  aspects  of  self- determination, dignity and freedom. No one shall  be  forced  to  undergo  medical  procedures,  including sex reassignment surgery, sterilisation  or hormonal therapy, as a requirement for legal  recognition  of  their  gender  identity.  No  status,  such as marriage or parenthood, may be invoked  as  such  to  prevent  the  legal  recognition  of  a  person’s  gender  identity.  No  one  shall  be  subjected  to  pressure  to  conceal,  suppress  or  deny their sexual orientation or gender identity.  

States shall:

A. Ensure  that  all  persons  are  accorded  legal  capacity  in  civil  matters,  without  discrimination  on  the  basis  of  sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity,  and  the  opportunity to exercise that capacity, including  equal  rights  to  conclude  contracts,  and  to  administer,  own,  acquire  (including  through  inheritance),  manage,  enjoy  and  dispose  of  property;

B. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and other measures to fully respect and legally  recognise  each  person’s  self-defined  gender  identity;

C. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and other measures to ensure that procedures  exist whereby all State-issued identity papers  which  indicate  a  person’s  gender/sex  —  including birth certificates, passports, electoral  records  and  other  documents  —  reflect  the  person’s profound self-defined gender identity;

D. Ensure that such procedures are efficient, fair  and  non-discriminatory,  and  respect  the  dignity and privacy of the person concerned;

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E. Ensure that changes to identity documents will  be  recognised  in  all  contexts  where  the  identification or disaggregation of persons by  gender is required by law or policy;

F. Undertake  targeted  programmes  to  provide  social  support  for  all  persons  experiencing  gender transitioning or reassignment.

4. THE RIGHT TO LIFE

Everyone has the right to life.  No one shall  be  arbitrarily deprived of life, including by reference  to considerations of sexual orientation or gender  identity. The death penalty shall not be imposed  on any person on the basis of consensual sexual  activity among persons who are over the age of  consent or on the basis of sexual orientation or  gender identity.

States shall:

A. Repeal  all  forms  of  crime  that  have  the  purpose  or  effect  of  prohibiting  consensual  sexual activity among persons of the same sex  who  are  over  the  age  of  consent  and,  until  such  provisions  are  repealed,  never  impose  the  death  penalty  on  any  person  convicted  under them;  

B. Remit sentences of death and release all those  currently  awaiting  execution  for  crimes  relating to  consensual  sexual  activity  among  persons who are over the age of consent;

C.  Cease any State-sponsored or State-condoned  attacks  on  the  lives  of  persons  based  on  sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity,  and  ensure  that  all  such  attacks,  whether  by  government  officials  or  by  any  individual  or  group,  are  vigorously  investigated,  and that,

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where  appropriate  evidence  is  found,  those  responsible  are  prosecuted,  tried  and  duly  punished.

6. THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY  

Everyone,  regardless  of  sexual  orientation  or  gender identity,  is  entitled to the enjoyment of  privacy  without  arbitrary  or  unlawful  interference,  including  with  regard  to  their  family,  home  or  correspondence  as  well  as  to  protection from unlawful attacks on their honour  and  reputation.  The  right  to  privacy  ordinarily  includes the choice to disclose or not to disclose  information relating to one’s sexual orientation or  gender identity, as well as decisions and choices  regarding both one’s own body and consensual  sexual and other relations with others.

States shall:

A. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and  other  measures  to  ensure  the  right  of  each person, regardless of sexual orientation  or gender identity, to enjoy the private sphere,  intimate  decisions,  and  human  relations,  including  consensual  sexual  activity  among  persons  who  are  over  the  age  of  consent,  without arbitrary interference;

B. Repeal  all  laws  that  criminalise  consensual  sexual activity among persons of the same sex  who are over the age of consent, and ensure  that an equal age of consent applies to both  same-sex and different-sex sexual activity;

C. Ensure that criminal and other legal provisions  of  general  application  are  not  applied  to  de  facto  criminalise  consensual  sexual  activity  among persons of the same sex who are over  the age of consent;

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D. Repeal  any law that  prohibits  or  criminalises  the  expression  of  gender  identity,  including  through dress, speech or mannerisms, or that  denies to individuals the opportunity to change  their  bodies  as  a  means  of  expressing  their  gender identity;

E. Release all  those held  on remand or  on the  basis of a criminal conviction, if their detention  is related to consensual sexual activity among  persons who are over the age of consent, or is  related to gender identity;

F. Ensure  the  right  of  all  persons  ordinarily  to  choose  when,  to  whom and  how to  disclose  information  pertaining  to  their  sexual  orientation or gender identity, and protect all  persons from arbitrary or unwanted disclosure,  or threat of disclosure of such information by  others

9. THE  RIGHT  TO  TREATMENT  WITH  HUMANITY WHILE IN DETENTION

Everyone deprived of liberty shall be treated with  humanity  and  with  respect  for  the  inherent  dignity of the human person. Sexual orientation  and gender identity are integral to each person’s  dignity.

States shall:

A. Ensure  that  placement  in  detention  avoids  further marginalising persons on the basis of  sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity  or  subjecting  them  to  risk  of  violence,  ill- treatment or physical, mental or sexual abuse;

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B. Provide adequate access to medical care and  counselling appropriate to the needs of those  in custody, recognising any particular needs of  persons on the basis of their sexual orientation  or  gender  identity,  including  with  regard  to  reproductive  health,  access  to  HIV/AIDS  information  and  therapy  and  access  to  hormonal  or  other  therapy  as  well  as  to  gender-reassignment  treatments  where  desired;

C. Ensure,  to  the  extent  possible,  that  all  prisoners participate in decisions regarding the  place of detention appropriate to their sexual  orientation and gender identity;

D. Put  protective  measures  in  place  for  all  prisoners vulnerable to  violence or  abuse on  the  basis  of  their  sexual  orientation,  gender  identity or gender expression and ensure, so  far  as  is  reasonably  practicable,  that  such  protective  measures  involve  no  greater  restriction of their rights than is  experienced  by the general prison population;

E. Ensure that  conjugal  visits,  where permitted,  are granted on an equal basis to all prisoners  and  detainees,  regardless  of  the  gender  of  their partner;

F. Provide  for  the  independent  monitoring  of  detention facilities by the State as well as by  non-governmental  organisations  including  organisations working in the spheres of sexual  orientation and gender identity;

G. Undertake  programmes  of  training  and  awareness-raising for prison personnel and all  other officials in the public and private sector  who  are  engaged  in  detention  facilities,  regarding  international  human  rights

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standards and principles of equality and non- discrimination,  including in  relation to sexual  orientation and gender identity.

18. PROTECTION FROM MEDICAL ABUSES

No person may be forced to undergo any form of  medical  or  psychological  treatment,  procedure,  testing,  or  be  confined  to  a  medical  facility,  based on sexual  orientation or  gender identity.  Notwithstanding  any  classifications  to  the  contrary,  a  person’s  sexual  orientation  and  gender  identity  are  not,  in  and  of  themselves,  medical  conditions  and  are  not  to  be  treated,  cured or suppressed.  

States shall:

A. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and other measures to ensure full  protection  against  harmful  medical  practices  based  on  sexual orientation or gender identity, including  on the basis of stereotypes, whether derived  from culture or otherwise, regarding conduct,  physical  appearance  or  perceived  gender  norms;

B. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and other measures to ensure that no child’s  body  is  irreversibly  altered  by  medical  procedures in an attempt to impose a gender  identity  without  the  full,  free  and  informed  consent  of  the  child  in  accordance  with  the  age and maturity of the child and guided by  the  principle  that  in  all  actions  concerning  children, the best interests of the child shall be  a primary consideration;

C. Establish  child  protection  mechanisms  whereby no child is at risk of, or subjected to,  medical abuse;

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D. Ensure protection of persons of diverse sexual  orientations  and  gender  identities  against  unethical or involuntary medical procedures or  research,  including  in  relation  to  vaccines,  treatments  or  microbicides  for  HIV/AIDS  or  other diseases;

E. Review  and  amend  any  health  funding  provisions or programmes, including those of a  development-assistance  nature,  which  may  promote, facilitate or in any other way render  possible such abuses;

F. Ensure  that  any  medical  or  psychological  treatment or counselling does not, explicitly or  implicitly, treat sexual orientation and gender  identity  as  medical  conditions  to  be treated,  cured or suppressed.

19.   THE RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF OPINION  AND EXPRESSION

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and  expression,  regardless  of  sexual  orientation  or  gender identity. This includes the expression of  identity  or  personhood  through  speech,  deportment, dress, bodily characteristics, choice  of  name,  or  any  other  means,  as  well  as  the  freedom to seek, receive and impart information  and ideas of all  kinds,  including with regard to  human  rights,  sexual  orientation  and  gender  identity, through any medium and regardless of  frontiers.  

States shall:

A. Take  all  necessary  legislative,  administrative  and other measures to ensure full enjoyment  of  freedom of  opinion  and  expression,  while  respecting the rights and freedoms of others,

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without discrimination on the basis of sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity,  including  the  receipt and imparting of information and ideas  concerning  sexual  orientation  and  gender  identity, as well as related advocacy for legal  rights,  publication of materials,  broadcasting,  organisation of or participation in conferences,  and dissemination of and access to safer-sex  information;

B.  Ensure that the outputs and the organisation  of  media that  is  State-regulated is  pluralistic  and non-discriminatory in respect of issues of  sexual  orientation  and  gender  identity  and  that the personnel recruitment and promotion  policies  of  such  organisations  are  non- discriminatory  on  the  basis  of  sexual  orientation or gender identity;

C.  Take all necessary legislative, administrative  and  other  measures  to  ensure  the  full  enjoyment of the right to express identity or  personhood,  including  through  speech,  deportment,  dress,  bodily  characteristics,  choice of name or any other means;

D. Ensure  that  notions  of  public  order,  public  morality, public health and public security are  not  employed to  restrict,  in  a  discriminatory  manner,  any  exercise  of  freedom of  opinion  and  expression  that  affirms  diverse  sexual  orientations or gender identities;

E. Ensure that the exercise of freedom of opinion  and expression does not violate the rights and  freedoms  of  persons  of  diverse  sexual  orientations and gender identities;

F. Ensure that  all  persons,  regardless of  sexual  orientation  or  gender  identity,  enjoy  equal

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access to information and ideas, as well as to  participation in public debate.”

        23. UN bodies, Regional Human Rights Bodies, National  

Courts,  Government  Commissions  and  the  Commissions  

for Human Rights, Council of Europe, etc. have endorsed  

the Yogyakarta Principles and have considered them as an  

important tool for identifying the obligations of States to  

respect, protect and fulfill the human rights of all persons,  

regardless  of  their  gender  identity.   United  Nations  

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its  

Report of 2009 speaks of gender orientation and gender  

identity as follows:-

“Sexual orientation and gender identity ‘Other  status’  as  recognized  in  article  2,  paragraph  2,  includes  sexual  orientation.  States  parties  should  ensure  that  a  person’s  sexual orientation is not a barrier to realizing  Covenant  rights,  for  example,  in  accessing  survivor’s pension rights.   In addition, gender  identity is recognized as among the prohibited  grounds of discrimination, for example, persons  who are transgender,  transsexual  or intersex,  often face serious human rights violations, such  as harassment in schools or in the workplace.”

24. In this respect, reference may also be made to the  

General Comment No.2 of the Committee on Torture and

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Article  2  of  the  Convention  against  Torture  and  Other  

Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in  

2008  and  also  the  General  Comment  No.20  of  the  

Committee  on  Elimination  of  Discrimination  against  

Woman,  responsible  for  the  implementation  of  the  

Convention  on  the  Elimination  of  All  Forms  of  

Discrimination against Woman, 1979 and 2010 report.   

SRS and Foreign Judgments

25. Various  countries  have  given  recognition  to  the  

gender identity  of such persons,  mostly,  in  cases where  

transsexual  persons  started  asserting  their  rights  after  

undergoing SRS of their re-assigned sex.    In Corbett v.  

Corbett (1970)  2  All  ER  33,  the  Court  in  England  was  

concerned with the gender of a male to female transsexual  

in the context of the validity of a marriage.  Ormrod, J. in  

that  case  took  the  view  that  the  law  should  adopt  the  

chromosomal, gonadal and genital tests and if all three are  

congruent,  that should determine a person’s sex for the  

purpose of marriage.  Learned Judge expressed the view  

that any operative intervention should be ignored and the

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biological  sexual  constitution of  an individual  is  fixed at  

birth, at the latest, and cannot be changed either by the  

natural development of organs of the opposite sex or by  

medical or surgical means.  Later, in R v. Tan (1983) QB  

1053,  1063-1064,  the  Court  of  Appeal  applied  Corbett  

approach in the context of criminal law.  The Court upheld  

convictions which were imposed on Gloria Greaves, a post-

operative male to female transsexual, still being in law, a  

man.    

26. Corbett principle  was  not  found  favour  by  various  

other countries, like New Zealand, Australia etc. and also  

attracted much criticism, from the medical profession.  It  

was  felt  that  the  application  of  the  Corbett approach  

would lead to a substantial different outcome in cases of a  

post  operative  inter-sexual  person  and a  post  operative  

transsexual  person.    In  New  Zealand  in  Attorney-

General v. Otahuhu Family Court (1995) 1 NZLR 603,  

Justice  Ellis  noted  that  once  a  transsexual  person  has  

undergone surgery, he or she is no longer able to operate  

in his or her original sex.   It  was held that there is no

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social advantage in the law for not recognizing the validity  

of  the  marriage  of  a  transsexual  in  the  sex  of  

reassignment.   The Court held that an adequate test is  

whether  the  person  in  question  has  undergone  surgical  

and  medical  procedures  that  have  effectively  given  the  

person the physical conformation of a person of a specified  

sex.   In  Re  Kevin  (Validity  of  Marriage  of  

Transsexual) (2001) Fam CA 1074, in an Australian case,  

Chisholm J.,  held  that  there is  no ‘formulaic  solution’  to  

determine the sex of an individual for the purpose of the  

law of marriage.  It was held that all relevant matters need  

to be considered, including the person’s life experiences  

and self-perception.   Full Court of the Federal Family Court  

in the year 2003 approved the above-mentioned judgment  

holding  that  in  the  relevant  Commonwealth  marriage  

statute the words ‘man’ and ‘woman’ should be given their  

ordinary,  everyday  contemporary  meaning  and  that  the  

word  ‘man’  includes  a  post  operative  female  to  male  

transsexual  person.   The Full  Court  also held that  there  

was a biological  basis for  transsexualism and that there  

was  no  reason  to  exclude  the  psyche  as  one  of  the

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relevant  factors  in  determining  sex  and  gender.   The  

judgment Attorney-General for the Commonwealth &  

“Kevin  and  Jennifer”  &  Human  Rights  and  Equal   

Opportunity Commission  is reported in (2003) Fam CA  

94.

27.   Lockhart,  J.  in  Secretary,  Department of Social   

Security v. “SRA”,   (1993) 43 FCR 299 and Mathews, J.  

in  R  v.  Harris  &  McGuiness (1988)  17  NSWLR  158,  

made an exhaustive review of the various decisions with  

regard to the question of recognition to be accorded by  

Courts  to  the  gender  of  a  transsexual  person  who  had  

undertaken a surgical procedure.   The Courts generally in  

New  Zealand  held  that  the  decision  in  Corbett  v.  

Corbett (supra)  and R v.  Tan (supra)  which applied a  

purely  biological  test,  should  not  be  followed.   In  fact,  

Lockhart.  J.  in  SRA observed  that  the  development  in  

surgical  and  medical  techniques  in  the  field  of  sexual  

reassignment, together with indications of changing social  

attitudes  towards  transsexuals,  would  indicate  that  

generally they should not be regarded merely as a matter

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of chromosomes, which is purely a psychological question,  

one of self-perception, and partly a social question, how  

society perceives the individual.   

28.   A.B. v. Western Australia (2011) HCA 42 was a  

case concerned with the Gender Reassignment Act, 2000.  

In that Act, a person who had undergone a reassignment  

procedure could apply to Gender Reassignment Board for  

the issue of a recognition certificate.   Under Section 15 of  

that Act, before issuing the certificate, the Board had to be  

satisfied, inter alia, that the applicant believed his or her  

true gender was the person’s reassigned gender and had  

adopted  the  lifestyle  and gender  characteristics  of  that  

gender.  Majority of Judges agreed with Lockhart, J. in SRA  

that gender should not be regarded merely as a matter of  

chromosomes, but partly a psychological question, one of  

self-perception, and partly a social question, how society  

perceives the individual.   

29.  The House of Lords in Bellinger v. Bellinger (2003)  

2  All  ER  593  was  dealing  with  the  question  of  a  

transsexual.  In that case, Mrs. Bellinger was born on 7th

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September,  1946.   At birth,  she was correctly classified  

and registered as male.  However, she felt more inclined  

to be a female.  Despite her inclinations, and under some  

pressure, in 1967 she married a woman and at that time  

she was 21 years old.  Marriage broke down and parties  

separated in 1971 and got divorce in the year 1975.  Mrs.  

Bellinger dressed and lived like a woman and when she  

married  Mr.  Bellinger,  he  was  fully  aware  of  her  

background and throughout had been supportive to her.  

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bellinger  since  marriage  lived  happily  as  

husband  and  wife  and  presented  themselves  in  that  

fashion  to  the  outside  world.   Mrs.  Bellinger’s  primary  

claim was for a declaration under Section 55 of the Family  

Law Act, 1986 that her marriage to Mr. Bellinger in 1981  

was “at its inception valid marriage”.  The House of Lords  

rejected  the  claim and dismissed  the  appeal.  Certainly,  

the  “psychological  factor”  has  not  been  given  much  

prominence in determination of the claim of Mrs. Bellinger.  

30.   The  High  Court  of  Kuala  Lumpur  in  Re JG,  JG v.  

Pengarah Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara (2006) 1 MLJ

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90,  was  considering  the  question  as  to  whether  an  

application to amend or correct gender status stated in  

National Registration Identity Card could be allowed after  

a person has undergone  SRS.   It  was a case where the  

plaintiff was born as a male, but felt more inclined to be a  

woman.   In  1996  at  Hospital  Siroros  she  underwent  a  

gender  reassignment  and  got  the  surgery  done  for  

changing the sex from male to female and then she lived  

like a woman.  She applied to authorities to change her  

name and also for a declaration of her gender as female,  

but her request was not favourably considered,  but still  

treated as a male.   She sought a declaration from the  

Court  that  she  be  declared  as  a  female  and  that  the  

Registration Department  be directed to  change the  last  

digit of her identity card to a digit that reflects a female  

gender.   The  Malaysian  Court  basically  applied  the  

principle laid down in Corbett (supra), however, both the  

prayers sought for were granted, after noticing that the  

medical men have spoken that the plaintiff is a female and  

they have considered the sex change of the plaintiff  as  

well  as her  “psychological  aspect”.    The Court  noticed

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that she feels like a woman, lives like one,  behaves as  

one,  has  her  physical  body  attuned  to  one,  and  most  

important of all, her “psychological thinking” is that of a  

woman.   

31.   The Court of Appeal, New South Wales was called  

upon  to  decide  the  question  whether  the  Registrar  of  

Births,  Deaths  and  Marriages  has  the  power  under  the  

Births,  Deaths  and  Marriages  Act,  1995  to  register  a  

change of sex of a person and the sex recorded on the  

register to “non-specific” or “non-specified”.  The appeal  

was  allowed  and  the  matter  was  remitted  back  to  the  

Tribunal for a fresh consideration in accordance with law,  

after laying down the law on the subject.  The judgment is  

reported as Norrie v. NSW Registrar of Births, Deaths  

and Marriages  (2013) NSWCA 145.  While disposing of  

the appeal, the Court held as follows:-

“The  consequence  is  that  the  Appeal  Panel  (and  the  Tribunal  and  the  Registrar)  were  in  error in construing the power in S.32DC(1) as  limiting the Registrar to registering a person’s  change of sex as only male or female.  An error  in  the  construction  of  the  statutory  provision  granting  the  power  to  register  a  person’s

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change of sex is an error on a question of law.  Collector of Customs v. Pozzolanic Enterprises  Pty. Ltd. [1993] FCA 322; (1993) 43 FCR 280 at  287.   This  is  so  notwithstanding  that  the  determination of the common understanding of  a general word used in the statutory provision  is a question of fact.  The Appeal Panel (and the  Tribunal  and  the  Registrar)  erred  in  determining that the current ordinary meaning  of the word “sex” is limited to the character of  being either male or female. That involved an  error  on  a  question  of  fact.   But  the  Appeal  Panel’s  error  in  arriving  at  the  common  understanding  of  the  word  “sex”  was  associated with its error in construction of the  effect of the statutory provision of S.32DC (and  also of S.32DA), and accordingly is of law: Hope  v. Bathurst City Council [1980] HCA 16, (1980)  144 CLR 1 at 10.”

32.   In  Christine  Goodwin  v.  United  Kingdom  

(Application  No.28957/95  -  Judgment  dated  11th July,  

2002), the European Court of Human Rights examined an  

application alleging violation of Articles 8, 12, 13 and 14 of  

the  Convention  for  Protection  of  Human  Rights  and  

Fundamental  Freedoms,  1997  in  respect  of  the  legal  

status  of  transsexuals  in  UK  and  particularly  their  

treatment in  the sphere of employment,  social  security,  

pensions  and  marriage.   Applicant  in  that  case  had  a

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tendency to dress as a woman from early childhood and  

underwent  aversion  therapy  in  1963-64.    In  the  mid-

1960s she was diagnosed as a transsexual.   Though she  

married  a  woman  and  they  had  four  children,  her  

inclination was that her “brain sex” did not fit her body.  

From that time until 1984 she dressed as a man for work  

but as a woman in her free time.  In January, 1985, the  

applicant began treatment at the Gender Identity Clinic.  

In October, 1986, she underwent surgery to shorten her  

vocal chords.  In August, 1987, she was accepted on the  

waiting  list  for  gender  re-assignment  surgery  and  later  

underwent  that  surgery  at  a  National  Health  Service  

hospital.   The  applicant  later  divorced  her  former  wife.  

She claimed between 1990 and 1992 she was sexually  

harassed by colleagues at work, followed by other human  

rights  violations.   The  Court  after  referring  to  various  

provisions and Conventions held as follows:-  

“Nonetheless,  the  very  essence  of  the  Convention  is  respect  for  human  dignity  and  human  freedom.  Under  Article  8  of  the  Convention  in  particular,  where  the  notion  of  personal  autonomy  is  an  important  principle  underlying the interpretation of its guarantees,

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protection  is  given  to  the  personal  sphere  of  each individuals, including the right to establish  details  of  their  identity  as  individual  human  beings  (see, inter  alia,  Pretty  v.  the  United   Kingdom  no.2346/02,  judgment  of  29  April  2002, 62, and  Mikulic v. Croatia,  no.53176/99,  judgment of  7 February 2002,  53,  both to be  published in ECHR 2002…).  In the twenty first  century  the  right  of  transsexuals  to  personal  development and to physical and moral security  in  the full  sense enjoyed by others in  society  cannot be regarded as a matter of controversy  requiring the lapse of time to cast clearer light  on  the  issues  involved.   In  short,  the  unsatisfactory situation in which post-operative  transsexuals live in an intermediate zone as not  quite  one  gender  or  the  other  is  no  longer  sustainable.”

33.  The European Court of Human Rights in the case of  

Van  Kuck  v.  Germany (Application  No.35968/97  –  

Judgment  dated  12.9.2003)  dealt  with  the  application  

alleging  that  German  Court’s  decisions  refusing  the  

applicant’s  claim  for  reimbursement  of  gender  

reassignment measures and the related proceedings were  

in breach of her rights to a fair trial and of her right to  

respect  for  her  private  life  and  that  they  amounted  to  

discrimination  on  the  ground  of  her  particular  

“psychological situation”.  Reliance was placed on Articles  

6, 8, 13 and 14 of the Convention for Protection of Human

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Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1997.  The Court held  

that the concept of “private life” covers the physical and  

psychological integrity of a person, which can sometimes  

embrace  aspects  of  an  individual’s  physical  and  social  

identity.  For example, gender identifications, name and  

sexual orientation and sexual life fall within the personal  

sphere protected by Article 8.  The Court also held that the  

notion  of  personal  identity  is  an  important  principle  

underlying the interpretation of various guaranteed rights  

and the very essence of the Convention being respect for  

human dignity and human freedom, protection is given to  

the right of transsexuals to personal development and to  

physical and moral security.   

34.   Judgments referred to above are mainly related to  

transsexuals, who, whilst belonging physically to one sex,  

feel  convinced  that  they  belong  to  the  other,  seek  to  

achieve  a  more  integrated  unambiguous  identity  by  

undergoing medical and surgical operations to adapt their  

physical  characteristic  to  their  psychological  nature.  

When we examine the rights of transsexual persons, who

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have undergone  SRS,  the test  to  be applied is  not  the  

“Biological  test”,  but  the  “Psychological  test”,  because  

psychological factor and thinking of transsexual has to be  

given primacy than binary notion of gender of that person.  

Seldom  people  realize  the  discomfort,  distress  and  

psychological  trauma,  they  undergo  and  many  of  them  

undergo  “Gender  Dysphoria’  which  may lead to  mental  

disorder.     Discrimination  faced  by  this  group  in  our  

society, is rather unimaginable and their rights have to be  

protected,  irrespective  of  chromosomal  sex,  genitals,  

assigned  birth  sex,  or  implied  gender  role.   Rights  of  

transgenders, pure and simple, like Hijras, eunuchs, etc.  

have also to be examined, so also their right to remain as  

a third gender as well as their physical and psychological  

integrity.    Before addressing those aspects further,  we  

may  also  refer  to  few  legislations  enacted  in  other  

countries recognizing their rights.

LEGISLATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES ON TGs

35.  We notice,  following the trend,  in the international  

human rights law, many countries have enacted laws for

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recognizing  rights  of  transsexual  persons,  who  have  

undergone either  partial/complete SRS,  including United  

Kingdom,  Netherlands,  Germany,  Australia,  Canada,  

Argentina, etc.  United Kingdom has passed the General  

Recommendation  Act,  2004,  following  the  judgment  in  

Christine  Goodwin  (supra)  passed  by  the  European  

Courts of Human Rights.   The Act is all encompassing as  

not only does it provide legal recognition to the acquired  

gender  of  a  person,  but  it  also  lays  down  provisions  

highlighting  the  consequences  of  the  newly  acquired  

gender  status  on  their  legal  rights  and  entitlements  in  

various aspects such as marriage, parentage, succession,  

social  security  and pensions etc.     One of  the notable  

features of the Act is that it is not necessary that a person  

needs to have undergone or in the process of undergoing  

a  SRS to  apply  under  the  Act.   Reference  in  this  

connection may be made to the Equality Act, 2010 (UK)  

which  has  consolidated,  repealed  and  replaced  around  

nine different anti-discrimination legislations including the  

Sex Discrimination Act,  1986.    The Act  defines  certain  

characteristics  to  be  “protected  characteristics”  and  no

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one shall be discriminated or treated less favourably on  

grounds that  the person possesses one or  more of  the  

“protected characteristics”.  The Act also imposes duties  

on Public Bodies to eliminate all  kinds of discrimination,  

harassment and victimization.   Gender reassignment has  

been  declared  as  one  of  the  protected  characteristics  

under the Act, of course, only the transsexuals i.e. those  

who  are  proposing  to  undergo,  is  undergoing  or  has  

undergone the process of  the gender  reassignment are  

protected under the Act.    

36. In  Australia,  there  are  two  Acts  dealing  with  the  

gender identity, (1) Sex Discrimination Act, 1984; and (ii)  

Sex  Discrimination  Amendment  (Sexual  Orientation,  

Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act, 2013 (Act 2013).  

Act 2013 amends the Sex Discrimination Act, 1984.   Act  

2013  defines  gender  identity  as  the  appearance  or  

mannerisms or other  gender-related characteristics of  a  

person (whether by way of medical intervention or not)  

with or without regard to the person’s designated sex at  

birth.  

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 Sections 5(A), (B) and (C) of the 2013 Act have some  

relevance and the same are extracted hereinbelow:-

“5A  Discrimination on the ground of sexual  orientation   (1)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground  of the aggrieved person’s sexual orientation if, by  reason of:

(a)  the  aggrieved  person’s  sexual  orientation;  or

(b)  a characteristic that appertains generally to  persons  who  have  the  same  sexual  orientation as the aggrieved person; or

(c)  a characteristic that is generally imputed to  persons  who  have  the  same  sexual  orientation as the aggrieved person;

the  discriminator  treats  the  aggrieved  person  less favourably than,  in  circumstances that  are  the  same  or  are  not  materially  different,  the  discriminator treats or would treat a person who  has a different sexual orientation.

(2)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground  of  the  aggrieved  person’s  sexual  orientation  if  the  discriminator  imposes,  or  proposes  to  impose, a condition, requirement or practice that  has,  or  is  likely  to  have,  the  effect  of  disadvantaging  persons  who  have  the  same  sexual orientation as the aggrieved person.

(3)  This section has effect subject to sections 7B  and 7D.

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5B  Discrimination on the ground of gender  identity

(1)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground  of the aggrieved person’s gender identity if,  by  reason of: (a)  the aggrieved person’s gender identity; or (b)  a characteristic that appertains generally to  

persons who have the same gender identity  as the aggrieved person; or

(c)  a characteristic that is generally imputed to  persons who have the same gender identity  as the aggrieved person;

the  discriminator  treats  the  aggrieved  person  less favourably than,  in  circumstances that  are  the  same  or  are  not  materially  different,  the  discriminator treats or would treat a person who  has a different gender identity.

(2)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground  of the aggrieved person’s gender identity if the  discriminator imposes, or proposes to impose, a  condition, requirement or practice that has, or is  likely  to  have,  the  effect  of  disadvantaging  persons who have the same gender identity as  the aggrieved person.

(3)  This section has effect subject to sections 7B  and 7D.

5C  Discrimination  on  the  ground  of  intersex status

(1)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground

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of the aggrieved person’s intersex status if,  by  reason of: (a)  the aggrieved person’s intersex status; or

(b)  a characteristic that appertains generally to  persons of intersex status; or

(c)  a characteristic that is generally imputed to  persons of intersex status;

the  discriminator  treats  the  aggrieved  person  less favourably than,  in  circumstances that  are  the  same  or  are  not  materially  different,  the  discriminator treats or would treat a person who  is not of intersex status.

(2)  For the purposes of this Act, a person (the  discriminator)  discriminates  against  another  person (the  aggrieved person) on the ground  of the aggrieved person’s intersex status if  the  discriminator imposes, or proposes to impose, a  condition, requirement or practice that has, or is  likely  to  have,  the  effect  of  disadvantaging  persons of intersex status.

(3)  This section has effect subject to sections 7B  and 7D.” Various other precautions have also been provided  

under the Act.   

37.  We may in this respect also refer to the European  

Union  Legislations  on  transsexuals.    Recital  3  of  the  

Preamble  to  the  Directive  2006/54/EC  of  European  

Parliament  and  the  Council  of  5  July  2006  makes  an  

explicit  reference  to  discrimination  based  on  gender

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reassignment  for  the first  time in  European Union Law.  

Recital 3 reads as under :-

“The Court of Justice has held that the scope of  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  for  men  and  women cannot be confined to the prohibition of  discrimination based on the fact that a person is  of one or other sex.  In view of this purpose and  the  nature  of  the  rights  which  it  seeks  to  safeguard,  it  also  applies  to  discrimination  arising  from  the  gender  reassignment  of  a  person.”

38.   European Parliament  also  adopted a  resolution  on  

discrimination  against  transsexuals  on  12th September,  

1989 and called upon the Member States to take steps for  

the  protection  of  transsexual  persons  and  to  pass  

legislation to further that end.  Following that Hungary has  

enacted  Equal  Treatment  and  the  Promotion  of  Equal  

Opportunities Act, 2003, which includes sexual identity as  

one of  the  grounds  of  discrimination.    2010 paper  on  

‘Transgender  Persons’  Rights  in  the  EU  Member  States  

prepared  by  the  Policy  Department  of  the  European  

Parliament  presents the specific situation of transgender  

people in 27 Member States of the European Union.  In the  

United States of America some of the laws enacted by the

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States are inconsistent with each other.   The Federal Law  

which provides protection to transgenders is The Matthew  

Shepard and James Byrd. Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act,  

2009, which expands the scope of the 1969 United States  

Federal Hate-crime Law by including offences  motivated  

by actual or perceived gender identity.   Around 15 States  

and  District  of  Colombia  in  the  United  States  have  

legislations  which  prohibit  discrimination  on  grounds  of  

gender identity and expression.  Few States have issued  

executive orders prohibiting discrimination.   

39.   The  Parliament  of  South  Africa  in  the  year  2003,  

enacted Alteration of Sex Description and Sex Status Act,  

2003,  which  permits  transgender  persons  who  have  

undergone gender reassignment or people whose sexual  

characteristics  have  evolved  naturally  or  an  intersexed  

person to apply to the Director General  of  the National  

Department of Home Affairs for alteration of his/her sex  

description  in  the  birth  register,  though  the  legislation  

does  not  contemplate  a  more  inclusive  definition  of  

transgenders.   

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40.    The Senate of Argentina in the year 2012 passed a  

law on Gender Identity that recognizes right by all persons  

to the recognition of their gender identity as well as free  

development  of  their  person  according  to  their  gender  

identity and can also request that their recorded sex be  

amended along with the changes in first name and image,  

whenever  they  do  not  agree  with  the  self-perceived  

gender identity.  Not necessary that they seemed to prove  

that  a  surgical  procedure  for  total  or  partial  genital  

reassignment,  hormonal  therapies  or  any  other  

psychological  or  medical  treatment  had  taken  place.  

Article 12 deals with dignified treatment, respecting the  

gender  identity  adopted by the individual,  even though  

the first name is different from the one recorded in their  

national identity documents.   Further laws also provide  

that whenever requested by the individual,  the adopted  

first name must be used for summoning, recording, filing,  

calling and any other procedure or service in public and  

private spaces.   

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41.   In Germany, a new law has come into force on 5th  

November, 2013, which allows the parents to register the  

sex  of  the  children  as  ‘not  specified’  in  the  case  of  

children with intersex variation.  According to Article 22,  

Section  3  of  the  German  Civil  Statutes  Act  reads  as  

follows:-

“If a child can be assigned to neither the female  nor  the  male  sex  then  the  child  has  to  be  named without a specification”     

42.   The law has also added a category of X, apart from  

“M”  and  “F”  under  the  classification  of  gender  in  the  

passports.  

Indian Scenario

43. We have referred exhaustively to the various judicial  

pronouncements  and  legislations  on  the  international  

arena  to  highlight  the  fact  that  the  recognition  of  “sex  

identity  gender”  of  persons,  and “guarantee to  equality  

and non-discrimination” on the ground of gender identity  

or  expression  is  increasing  and  gaining  acceptance  in  

international law and, therefore, be applied in India as well.

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44. Historical  background of  Transgenders in  India has  

already been dealth in the earlier part of this Judgment  

indicating that they were once treated with great respect,  

at least in the past,  though not in the present. We can  

perceive a wide range of transgender related identities,  

cultures or experiences which are generally as follows:

“Hijras:  Hijras  are  biological  males  who  reject  their ‘masculine’ identity in due course of time to  identify  either  as  women,  or  “not-men”,  or  “in- between man and woman”, or “neither man nor  woman”.  Hijras can be  considered as the western  equivalent  of  transgender/transsexual  (male-to- female)  persons  but  Hijras  have  a  long  tradition/culture  and  have  strong  social  ties  formalized  through  a  ritual  called  “reet”  (becoming a member of Hijra community).  There  are regional variations in the use of terms referred  to  Hijras.   For  example,  Kinnars  (Delhi)  and  Aravanis (Tamil Nadu).  Hijras may earn through  their  traditional  work:  ‘Badhai’  (clapping  their  hands  and  asking  for  alms),  blessing  new-born  babies,  or  dancing  in  ceremonies.   Some  proportion of Hijras engage in sex work for lack of  other job opportunities, while some may be self- employed  or  work  for  non-governmental  organisations.”  (See  UNDP  India  Report  (December, 2010).

Eunuch: Eunuch refers to an emasculated male  and  intersexed  to  a  person  whose  genitals  are  ambiguously  male-like  at  birth,  but  this  is  discovered  the  child  previously  assigned  to  the

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male sex, would be recategorized as intesexexd –  as a Hijra.

“Aravanis  and  ‘Thirunangi’  –  Hijras  in  Tamil  Nadu identify as “Aravani”.  Tamil Nadu Aravanigal  Welfare  Board,  a  state  government’s  initiative  under  the  Department  of  Social  Welfare  defines  Aravanis  as  biological  males  who  self-identify  themselves as a woman trapped in a male’s body.  Some Aravani activists want the public and media  to use the term ‘Thirunangi’ to refer to Aravanis.

Kothi –  Kothis  are  a  heterogeneous  group.  ‘Kothis’ can be described as biological males who  show varying degrees of ‘femininity’ – which may  be  situational.   Some proportion  of  Kothis  have  bisexual  behavior  and get  married to  a  woman.  Kothis are generally of lower socioeconomic status  and some engage in sex work for survival.  Some  proportion  of  Hijra-identified  people  may  also  identify themselves as ‘Kothis’.  But not all Kothi  identified  people  identify  themselves  as  transgender or Hijras.

Jogtas/Jogappas:  Jogtas  or  Jogappas  are  those  persons  who  are  dedicated  to  and  serve  as  a  servant  of  goddess  Renukha  Devi  (Yellamma)  whose  temples  are  present  in  Maharashtra  and  Karnataka.   ‘Jogta’  refers  to  male servant of  that  Goddess and ‘Jogti’ refers to female servant (who is  also sometimes referred to as ‘Devadasi’).  One can  become a ‘Jogta’ (or Jogti) if it is part of their family  tradition or  if  one finds  a  ‘Guru’  (or  ‘Pujari’)  who  accepts him/her as a ‘Chela’ or ‘Shishya’ (disciple).  Sometimes, the term ‘Jogti Hijras’ is used to denote  those male-to-female transgender persons who are  devotees/servants  of  Goddess  Renukha  Devi  and  who are also in the Hijra communities.  This term is  used  to  differentiate  them from ‘Jogtas’  who  are  heterosexuals  and who may or  may not  dress  in

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woman’s  attire  when  they  worship  the  Goddess.  Also, that term differentiates them from ‘Jogtis’ who  are  biological  females  dedicated  to  the  Goddess.  However, ‘Jogti Hijras’ may refer to themselves as  ‘Jogti’  (female  pronoun)  or  Hijras,  and  even  sometimes as ‘Jogtas’.

Shiv-Shakthis:    Shiv-Shakthis are considered as  males who are possessed by or particularly close to  a  goddess  and  who  have  feminine  gender  expression.  Usually, Shiv-Shakthis are inducted into  the  Shiv-Shakti  community  by  senior  gurus,  who  teach them the norms, customs, and rituals to be  observed by them.  In a ceremony, Shiv-Shakthis  are married to a sword that represents male power  or  Shiva  (deity).   Shiv-Shakthis  thus  become the  bride  of  the  sword.   Occasionally,  Shiv-Shakthis  cross-dress  and  use  accessories  and  ornaments  that are generally/socially meant for women.  Most  people  in  this  community  belong  to  lower  socio- economic  status  and  earn  for  their  living  as  astrologers,  soothsayers,  and  spiritual  healers;  some  also  seek  alms.”   (See  Serena  Nanda,  Wadsworth  Publishing  Company,  Second  Edition (1999)

45. Transgender people, as a whole, face multiple forms  

of oppression in this country.  Discrimination is so large  

and  pronounced,  especially  in  the  field  of  health  care,  

employment, education, leave aside social  exclusion.  A  

detailed  study  was  conducted  by  the  United  Nations  

Development Programme (UNDP – India) and submitted a  

report in December, 2010 on Hijras/transgenders in India:

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“HIV  Human  Rights  and  Social  Exclusion”.   The  Report  

states that the HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus and  

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) is now increasingly  

seen  in  Hijras/transgenders  population.   The  estimated  

size of men who have sex with men (MSM) and male sex  

workers  population  in  India  (latter  presumably  includes  

Hijras/TG  communities)  is  2,352,133  and  235,213  

respectively.  It was stated that no reliable estimates are  

available  for  Hijras/TG  women.   HIV  prevalence  among  

MSM population was 7.4% against the overall  adult  HIV  

prevalence  of  0.36%.   It  was  stated  recently  Hijras/TG  

people were included under the category of MSM in HIV  

sentinel  serosurveillance.   It  is  also  reported  in  recent  

studies that Hijras/TG women have indicated a very high  

HIV  prevalence  (17.5%  to  41%)  among  them.   Study  

conducted by NACO also highlights a pathetic situation.  

Report submitted by NACI, NACP IV Working Group Hijras  

TG dated 5.5.2011 would indicate that transgenders are  

extremely vulnerable to HIV.  Both the reports highlight  

the  extreme  necessity  of  taking  emergent  steps  to  

improve  their  sexual  health,  mental  health  and  also

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address  the issue of  social  exclusion.   The UNDP in  its  

report  has made the following recommendations,  which  

are as under:

“Multiple problems are faced by Hijras/TG, which  necessitate  a  variety  of  solutions  and  actions.  While  some  actions  require  immediate  implementation  such  as  introducing  Hijra/TG- specific  social  welfare  schemes,  some  actions  need to be taken on a long-term basis changing  the  negative  attitude  of  the  general  public  and  increasing  accurate  knowledge  about  Hijra/TG  communities.   The required changes need to be  reflected  in  policies  and  laws;  attitude  of  the  government,  general  public  and  health  care  providers; and health care systems and practice.  Key recommendations include the following:   

1. Address the gape in NACP-III:  establish HIV  sentinel  serosurveillance  sites  for  Hijras/TG at  strategic locations; conduct operations research  to  design  and  fine-tune  culturally-relevant  package  of  HIV  prevention  and  care  interventions  for  Hijras/TG;  provide  financial  support  for  the  formation  of  CBOs  run  by  Hijras/TG;  and  build  the  capacity  of  CBOs  to  implement effective rogrammes.

2. Move  beyond  focusing  on  individual-level  HIV  prevention  activities  to  address  the  structural  determinants  of  risks  and  mitigate the impact of risks.  For example,  mental  health  counseling,  crisis  intervention  (crisis in relation to suicidal tendencies, police  harassment  and  arrests,  support  following  sexual  and  physical  violence),  addressing  alcohol  and  drug  abuse,  and  connecting  to  livelihood programs all  need to be part of the  HIV interventions.

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3. Train  health  care  providers  to  be  competent and sensitive in providing health  care  services  (including  STI  and  HIV-related  services)  to  Hijras/TG  as  well  as  develop  and  monitor implementation of guidelines related to  gender transition and sex reassignment surgery  (SRS).

4. Clarify  the  ambiguous  legal  status  of  sex  reassignment  surgery  and  provide  gender  transition and SRS services (with proper pre- and  post-operation/transition  counseling)  for  free in public hospitals in various parts in India.

5. Implement  stigma  and  discrimination  reduction  measures at  various  settings  through  a  variety  of  ways:  mass  media  awareness  for  the  general  public  to  focused  training and sensitization for police and health  care providers.

6. Develop action steps toward taking a position  on  legal recognition of gender identity of  Hijras/TG need to be taken in consultation with  Hijras/TG and other key stakeholders.  Getting  legal  recognition  and  avoiding  ambiguities  in  the  current  procedures  that  issue  identity  documents  to  Hijras/TGs  are required  as  they  are  connected  to  basic  civil  rights  such  as  access  to  health  and  public  services,  right  to  vote,  right  to  contest  elections,  right  to  education, inheritance rights, and marriage and  child adoption.

7. Open up the existing Social Welfare Schemes  for needy Hijras/TG and create specific welfare  schemes to address the basic needs of Hijras/TG  including housing and employment needs.

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8. Ensure  greater  involvement  of  vulnerable  communities including Hijras/TG women in  policy formulation and program development.”

46. Social exclusion and discrimination on the ground of  

gender stating that one does not conform to the binary  

gender (male/female) does prevail in India.   Discussion on  

gender  identity  including  self-identification  of  gender  of  

male/female  or as transgender mostly  focuses on those  

persons who are assigned male sex at birth, whether one  

talks  of  Hijra  transgender,  woman  or  male  or  male  to  

female  transgender  persons,  while  concern  voiced  by  

those who are identified as female to male trans-sexual  

persons  often  not  properly  addressed.  Female  to  male  

unlike Hijra/transgender  persons are not  quite visible in  

public  unlike Hijra/transgender  persons.   Many of  them,  

however,  do  experience  violence  and  discrimination  

because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.  

INDIA TO FOLLOW INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

47. International Conventions and norms are significant  

for  the  purpose  of  interpretation  of  gender  equality.

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Article  1 of  the Universal  declaration on Human Rights,  

1948,  states  that  all  human-beings  are  born  free  and  

equal  in  dignity  and  rights.   Article  3  of  the  Universal  

Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has a  

right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 6 of the  

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966  

affirms that every human-being has the inherent right to  

life, which right shall be protected by law and no one shall  

be  arbitrarily  deprived  of  his  life.    Article  5  of  the  

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 7 of the  

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provide  

that  no  one  shall  be  subjected  to  torture  or  to  cruel  

inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.   United  

Nations  Convention  against  Torture  and  Other  Cruel  

Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment (dated  

24th January,  2008)  specifically  deals  with  protection  of  

individuals and groups made vulnerable by discrimination  

or marginalization.   Para 21 of the Convention states that  

States are obliged to protect from torture or ill-treatment  

all persons regardless of sexual orientation or transgender  

identity and to prohibit,  prevent and provide redress for

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torture and ill-treatment in all contests of State custody or  

control.  Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human  

Rights and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil  

and Political Rights state that no one shall be subjected to  

“arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family,  

home or correspondence”.  

48. Above-mentioned  International  Human  Rights  

instruments which are being followed by various countries  

in  the  world  are  aimed  to  protect  the  human rights  of  

transgender  people  since  it  has  been  noticed  that  

transgenders/transsexuals often face serious human rights  

violations,  such as  harassment in  work place,  hospitals,  

places  of  public  conveniences,  market  places,  theaters,  

railway stations, bus stands, and so on.  

49. Indian  Law,  on  the  whole,  only  recognizes  the  

paradigm of binary genders of male and female, based on  

a person’s sex assigned by birth,  which permits gender  

system, including the law relating to marriage, adoption,  

inheritance,  succession  and  taxation  and  welfare  

legislations.    We have exhaustively referred to various

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articles contained in the Universal Declaration of Human  

Rights,  1948,  the  International  Covenant  on  Economic,  

Social  and  Cultural  Rights,  1966,  the  International  

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 as well as the  

Yogyakarta  principles.   Reference  was  also  made  to  

legislations enacted in other countries dealing with rights  

of persons of transgender community.   Unfortunately we  

have no legislation in this country dealing with the rights  

of  transgender  community.   Due  to  the  absence  of  

suitable legislation protecting the rights of the members  

of  the  transgender  community,  they  are  facing  

discrimination in various areas and hence the necessity to  

follow the International  Conventions to which India  is  a  

party  and  to  give  due  respect  to  other  non-binding  

International  Conventions  and  principles.    Constitution  

makers  could  not  have envisaged that  each  and every  

human  activity  be  guided,  controlled,  recognized  or  

safeguarded by laws made by the legislature.   Article 21  

has  been incorporated  to  safeguard  those rights  and a  

constitutional  Court  cannot  be  a  mute  spectator  when  

those rights  are  violated,  but  is  expected  to  safeguard

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those  rights  knowing  the  pulse  and  feeling  of  that  

community,  though  a  minority,  especially  when  their  

rights have gained universal recognition and acceptance.

50. Article 253 of the Constitution of India states that the  

Parliament has the power to make any law for the whole  

or any part of the territory of India for implementing any  

treaty, agreement or convention.  Generally, therefore, a  

legislation is required for implementing the international  

conventions,  unlike the position in  the United States  of  

America where the rules of international law are applied  

by  the  municipal  courts  on  the  theory  of  their  implied  

adoption by the State, as a part of its own municipal law.  

Article VI, Cl. (2) of the U.S. Constitution reads as follows:

“……..all treaties made, or which shall be made,  under the authority of the united States, shall  be the supreme law of the land, and the judges  in every State shall be bound thereby, anything  in the Constitution or laws of any State to the   contrary not-withstanding.”

51. In the United States, however, it is open to the courts  

to supersede or modify international law in its application  

or it may be controlled by the treaties entered into by the  

United States.  But, till an Act of Congress is passed, the

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Court is bound by the law of nations, which is part of the  

law of the land.  Such a ‘supremacy clause’ is absent in our  

Constitution.   Courts  in  India  would  apply  the  rules  of  

International law according to the principles of comity of  

Nations,  unless  they  are  overridden  by  clear  rules  of  

domestic  law.    See:  Gramophone Company of India  

Ltd. v. Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984) 2 SCC 534 and  

Tractor Export v. Tarapore & Co. (1969) 3 SCC 562,  

Mirza  Ali  Akbar  Kashani  v.  United  Arab  Republic   

(1966) 1 SCR 391.  In the case of Jolly George Varghese  

v. Bank of Cochin (1980) 2 SCC 360, the Court applied  

the  above  principle  in  respect  of  the  International  

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 as well as in  

connection  with  the  Universal  Declaration  of  Human  

Rights.   India has ratified the above mentioned covenants,  

hence,  those  covenants  can  be  used  by  the  municipal  

courts  as  an  aid  to  the  Interpretation  of  Statutes  by  

applying the Doctrine of Harmonization.   But, certainly, if  

the  Indian  law  is  not  in  conflict  with  the  International  

covenants,  particularly  pertaining  to  human  rights,  to  

which India is a party, the domestic court can apply those

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principles in the Indian conditions.   The Interpretation of  

International Conventions is governed by Articles 31 and  

32  of  the  Vienna Convention  on  the  Law of  Treaties  of  

1969.    

52. Article 51 of the Directive Principles of State Policy,  

which falls under Part IV of the Indian Constitution, reads  

as under:  

“Art. 51.  The State shall endeavour to –  

(a) promote international peace and security;

(b)  maintain  just  and  honourable  relations  between nations;

(c) Foster  respect  for  international  law  and  treaty obligation in the dealings of organised  peoples with one another; and

(d) Encourage  settlement  of  international  disputes by arbitration.”

53.   Article 51, as already indicated, has to be read along  

with Article 253 of the Constitution.  If the parliament has  

made  any  legislation  which  is  in  conflict  with  the  

international  law,  then  Indian  Courts  are  bound  to  give  

effect to the Indian Law, rather than the international law.  

However,  in  the  absence  of  a  contrary  legislation,

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municipal  courts  in  India  would  respect  the  rules  of  

international  law.   In  His  Holiness  Kesavananda  

Bharati  Sripadavalvaru  v.  State  of  Kerala (1973)  4  

SCC 225,  it  was stated that in view of Article 51 of the  

Constitution,  the  Court  must  interpret  language  of  the  

Constitution,  if  not  intractable,  in  the  light  of  United  

Nations Charter and the solemn declaration subscribed to  

it by India.  In Apparel Export Promotion Council v. A.   

K.  Chopra (1999)  1  SCC  759,  it  was  pointed  out  that  

domestic courts are under an obligation to give due regard  

to the international conventions and norms for construing  

the  domestic  laws,  more  so,  when  there  is  no  

inconsistency  between  them  and  there  is  a  void  in  

domestic  law.  Reference  may  also  be  made  to  the  

Judgments  of  this  Court  in  Githa Hariharan (Ms)  and  

another v. Reserve Bank of India and another (1999)  

2  SCC  228,  R.D.  Upadhyay  v.  State  of  Andhra  

Pradesh and others  (2007) 15 SCC 337 and  People’s  

Union  for  Civil  Liberties  v.  Union  of  India  and  

another (2005) 2 SCC 436.  In  Vishaka and others v.  

State of Rajasthan and Others (1997) 6 SCC 241, this

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Court  under  Article  141  laid  down various  guidelines  to  

prevent sexual  harassment of women in working places,  

and to enable gender equality relying on Articles 11, 24  

and  general  recommendations  22,  23  and  24  of  the  

Convention  on  the  Elimination  of  All  Forms  of  

Discrimination  against  Women.  Any  international  

convention  not  inconsistent  with  the  fundamental  rights  

and  in  harmony  with  its  spirit  must  be  read  into  those  

provisions,  e.g.,  Articles  14,  15,  19  and  21  of  the  

Constitution to enlarge the meaning and content thereof  

and  to  promote  the  object  of  constitutional  guarantee.  

Principles  discussed  hereinbefore  on  TGs  and  the  

International Conventions, including Yogyakarta principles,  

which  we  have  found  not  inconsistent  with  the  various  

fundamental  rights  guaranteed  under  the  Indian  

Constitution, must be recognized and followed, which has  

sufficient legal and historical justification in our country.  

ARTICLE 14 AND TRANSGENDERS

54. Article 14 of the Constitution of India states that the  

State shall not deny to “any person” equality before the

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law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory  

of India.  Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of  

all  rights  and  freedom.   Right  to  equality  has  been  

declared  as  the  basic  feature  of  the  Constitution  and  

treatment of equals as unequals or unequals as equals will  

be  violative  of  the  basic  structure  of  the  Constitution.  

Article 14 of the Constitution also ensures equal protection  

and  hence  a  positive  obligation  on  the  State  to  ensure  

equal  protection of  laws by bringing in  necessary  social  

and  economic  changes,  so  that  everyone  including  TGs  

may enjoy equal protection of laws and nobody is denied  

such  protection.  Article  14  does  not  restrict  the  word  

‘person’  and  its  application  only  to  male  or  female.  

Hijras/transgender  persons  who  are  neither  male/female  

fall within the expression ‘person’ and, hence, entitled to  

legal  protection  of  laws  in  all  spheres  of  State  activity,  

including  employment,  healthcare,  education  as  well  as  

equal civil and citizenship rights, as enjoyed by any other  

citizen of this country.   

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55. Petitioners have asserted as well as demonstrated on  

facts  and  figures  supported  by  relevant  materials  that  

despite  constitutional  guarantee  of  equality,  

Hijras/transgender  persons  have  been  facing  extreme  

discrimination  in  all  spheres  of  the  society.   Non-

recognition  of  the  identity  of  Hijras/transgender  persons  

denies them equal protection of law, thereby leaving them  

extremely vulnerable to harassment, violence and sexual  

assault in public spaces, at home and in jail, also by the  

police.  Sexual assault, including molestation, rape, forced  

anal  and  oral  sex,  gang  rape  and  stripping  is  being  

committed with impunity and there are reliable statistics  

and  materials  to  support  such  activities.   Further,  non-

recognition  of  identity  of  Hijras  /transgender  persons  

results in them facing extreme discrimination in all spheres  

of  society,  especially  in  the  field  of  employment,  

education, healthcare etc.  Hijras/transgender persons face  

huge  discrimination  in  access  to  public  spaces  like  

restaurants, cinemas, shops, malls etc.   Further, access to  

public  toilets  is  also  a  serious  problem they  face  quite  

often.    Since,  there  are no  separate  toilet  facilities  for

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Hijras/transgender persons, they have to use male toilets  

where they are prone to sexual assault and harassment.  

Discrimination  on  the  ground  of  sexual  orientation  or  

gender identity, therefore, impairs equality before law and  

equal  protection  of  law  and  violates  Article  14  of  the  

Constitution of India.

ARTICLES 15 & 16 AND TRANSGENDERS

56. Articles 15 and 16 prohibit discrimination against any  

citizen  on  certain  enumerated  grounds,  including  the  

ground of ‘sex’.   In fact, both the Articles prohibit all forms  

of gender bias and gender based discrimination.    

57. Article 15 states that the State shall not discriminate  

against any citizen, inter alia, on the ground of sex, with  

regard to  

(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places  of public entertainment; or  

(b) use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places  of  public  resort  maintained wholly  or  partly  out  of  State funds or dedicated to the use of the general  public.

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prevent  the  direct  or  indirect  attitude  to  treat  people  

differently, for the reason of not being in conformity with  

stereotypical  generalizations  of  binary  genders.    Both  

gender  and  biological  attributes  constitute  distinct  

components of sex.  Biological characteristics, of course,  

include  genitals,  chromosomes  and  secondary  sexual  

features,  but gender attributes include one’s self  image,  

the  deep  psychological  or  emotional  sense  of  sexual  

identity and character. The discrimination on the ground of  

‘sex’  under  Articles  15  and  16,  therefore,  includes  

discrimination  on  the  ground  of  gender  identity.   The  

expression  ‘sex’  used  in  Articles  15  and  16  is  not  just  

limited to biological sex of male or female, but intended to  

include  people  who  consider  themselves  to  be  neither  

male or female.  

60. TGs have been systematically denied the rights under  

Article 15(2) that is not to be subjected to any disability,  

liability,  restriction  or  condition  in  regard  to  access  to  

public  places.   TGs have also  not  been afforded special  

provisions  envisaged  under  Article  15(4)  for  the

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advancement of the socially and educationally backward  

classes  (SEBC)  of  citizens,  which  they  are,  and  hence  

legally entitled and eligible to get  the benefits  of SEBC.  

State is  bound to take some affirmative action for  their  

advancement  so  that  the  injustice  done  to  them  for  

centuries  could  be  remedied.   TGs  are  also  entitled  to  

enjoy economic, social, cultural and political rights without  

discrimination,  because  forms  of  discrimination  on  the  

ground of gender are violative of fundamental  freedoms  

and  human  rights.    TGs  have  also  been  denied  rights  

under Article 16(2) and discriminated against in respect of  

employment  or  office under the State on the ground of  

sex.  TGs are also entitled to reservation in the matter of  

appointment,  as  envisaged  under  Article  16(4)  of  the  

Constitution.   State is bound to take affirmative action to  

give them due representation in public services.  

61. Articles 15(2) to (4) and Article 16(4) read with the  

Directive  Principles  of  State  Policy  and  various  

international instruments to which Indian is a party, call for  

social equality, which the TGs could realize, only if facilities

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and opportunities are extended to them so that they can  

also live with dignity and equal status with other genders.  

ARTICLE 19(1)(a) AND TRANSGENDERS

62. Article  19(1)  of  the  Constitution  guarantees  certain  

fundamental rights, subject to the power of the State to  

impose  restrictions  from  exercise  of  those  rights.   The  

rights  conferred  by  Article  19  are  not  available  to  any  

person  who  is  not  a  citizen  of  India.   Article  19(1)  

guarantees those great basic rights which are recognized  

and guaranteed as the natural rights inherent in the status  

of the citizen of a free country.   Article 19(1) (a) of the  

Constitution states that all citizens shall have the right to  

freedom of speech and expression, which includes one’s  

right  to  expression  of  his  self-identified  gender.   Self-

identified gender can be expressed through dress, words,  

action or behavior or any other form.   No restriction can  

be  placed  on  one’s  personal  appearance  or  choice  of  

dressing,  subject  to  the  restrictions  contained  in  Article  

19(2) of the Constitution.   

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63. We may, in this connection, refer to few judgments of  

the US Supreme Courts on the rights of TG’s freedom of  

expression.  The Supreme Court of the State of Illinois in  

the City of Chicago v. Wilson et al., 75 III.2d 525(1978)  

struck down the municipal law prohibiting cross-dressing,  

and held as follows “-

“the  notion that  the  State  can  regulate one’s  personal  appearance,  unconfined  by  any  constitutional  strictures  whatsoever,  is  fundamentally  inconsistent  with  “values  of  privacy,  self-identity,  autonomy  and  personal  integrity that …..  the Constitution was designed  to protect.”

64. In  Doe v. Yunits et al.,  2000 WL33162199 (Mass.  

Super.), the Superior Court of Massachusetts, upheld the  

right of a person to wear school dress that matches her  

gender identity as part of protected speech and expression  

and observed as follows :-

“by  dressing  in  clothing  and  accessories  traditionally associated with the female gender,  she  is  expressing  her  identification  with  the  gender.  In addition, plaintiff’s ability to express  herself and her gender identity through dress is  important  for  her  health  and  well-being.  Therefore, plaintiff’s expression is not merely a  personal preference but a necessary symbol of  her identity.”

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65. Principles referred to above clearly indicate that the  

freedom of expression guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a)  

includes  the  freedom  to  express  one’s  chosen  gender  

identity  through  varied  ways  and  means  by  way  of  

expression, speech, mannerism, clothing etc.    

66. Gender identity,  therefore, lies at the core of one’s  

personal identity, gender expression and presentation and,  

therefore, it will have to be protected under Article 19(1)

(a)  of  the  Constitution  of  India.   A  transgender’s  

personality  could  be  expressed  by  the  transgender’s  

behavior and presentation.  State cannot prohibit, restrict  

or  interfere  with  a  transgender’s  expression  of  such  

personality,  which  reflects  that  inherent  personality.  

Often the State and its authorities either due to ignorance  

or otherwise fail to digest the innate character and identity  

of  such  persons.   We,  therefore,  hold  that  values  of  

privacy, self-identity, autonomy and personal integrity are  

fundamental  rights  guaranteed  to  members  of  the  

transgender  community  under  Article  19(1)(a)  of  the

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Constitution of India and the State is bound to protect and  

recognize those rights.   

ARTICLE 21 AND THE TRANSGENDERS

67. Article  21  of  the  Constitution  of  India  reads  as  

follows:

“21.    Protection  of  life  and  personal  liberty – No person shall be deprived of his life  or  personal  liberty  except  according  to  procedure established by law.”

Article  21  is  the  heart  and  soul  of  the  Indian  

Constitution,  which  speaks  of  the  rights  to  life  and  

personal  liberty.    Right  to  life  is  one  of  the  basic  

fundamental  rights  and  not  even  the  State  has  the  

authority  to  violate or take away that right.   Article 21  

takes all those aspects of life which go to make a person’s  

life meaningful.  Article 21 protects the dignity of human  

life, one’s personal autonomy, one’s right to privacy, etc.  

Right to dignity has been recognized to be an essential  

part  of  the  right  to  life  and  accrues  to  all  persons  on  

account of being humans.   In Francis Coralie Mullin v.  

Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi (1981) 1 SCC

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608  (paras  7  and  8),  this  Court  held  that  the  right  to  

dignity  forms  an  essential  part  of  our  constitutional  

culture which seeks to ensure the full  development and  

evolution of persons and includes “expressing oneself in  

diverse  forms,  freely  moving  about  and  mixing  and  

comingling with fellow human beings”.   

68. Recognition of one’s gender identity lies at the heart  

of the fundamental right to dignity.  Gender, as already  

indicated, constitutes the core of one’s sense of being as  

well  as  an  integral  part  of  a  person’s  identity.   Legal  

recognition of gender identity is, therefore, part of right to  

dignity and freedom guaranteed under our Constitution.

69. Article  21,  as  already  indicated,  guarantees  the  

protection of “personal autonomy” of an individual.   In  

Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2008) 3 SCC  

1  (paragraphs  34-35),  this  Court  held  that  personal  

autonomy includes both the negative right of not to be  

subject to interference by others and the positive right of  

individuals to make decisions about their life, to express

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themselves and to choose which activities to take part in.  

Self-determination  of  gender  is  an  integral  part  of  

personal  autonomy  and  self-expression  and  falls  within  

the realm of personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21  

of the Constitution of India.   

LEGAL  RECOGNITION  OF  THIRD/TRANSGENDER  IDENTITY

70. Self-identified gender can be either male or female  

or a third gender.  Hijras are identified as persons of third  

gender and are not identified either as male or female.  

Gender identity, as already indicated, refers to a person’s  

internal sense of being male, female or a transgender, for  

example Hijras do not identify as female because of their  

lack of female genitalia or lack of reproductive capability.  

This distinction makes them separate from both male and  

female  genders  and  they  consider  themselves  neither  

man nor woman, but a “third gender”.  Hijras, therefore,  

belong to a distinct socio-religious and cultural group and  

have,  therefore,  to  be  considered  as  a  “third  gender”,  

apart from male and female. State of Punjab has treated

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all TGs as male which is not legally sustainable.  State of  

Tamil  Nadu  has  taken  lot  of  welfare  measures  to  

safeguard  the  rights  of  TGs,  which  we  have  to  

acknowledge.  Few States like Kerala, Tripura, Bihar have  

referred  TGs  as  “third  gender  or  sex”.   Certain  States  

recognize them as “third category”.  Few benefits have  

also  been  extended  by  certain  other  States.  Our  

neighbouring  countries  have  also  upheld  their  

fundamental rights and right to live with dignity.    

71. The Supreme Court of Nepal in Sunil Babu Pant &  

Ors.  v.  Nepal  Government  (Writ  Petition  No.917  of  

2007  decided  on  21st December,  2007),  spoke  on  the  

rights of Transgenders as follows:-

“the fundamental rights comprised under Part II  of the Constitution are enforceable fundamental  human rights guaranteed to the citizens against  the  State.   For  this  reason,  the  fundamental  rights  stipulated  in  Part  III  are  the  rights  similarly vested in the third gender people as  human  beings.  The  homosexuals  and  third  gender people are also human beings as other  men and women are, and they are the citizens  of this country as well….  Thus, the people other  than ‘men’ and ‘women’, including the people of  ‘third  gender’  cannot  be  discriminated.  The

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State  should  recognize  the  existence  of  all  natural  persons  including  the  people  of  third  gender other than the men and women.   And it  cannot deprive the people of third gender from  enjoying  the  fundamental  rights  provided  by  Part III of the Constitution.”

72. The Supreme Court of Pakistan in  Dr. Mohammad  

Aslam  Khaki  &  Anr.  V.  Senior  Superintendent  of   

Police  (Operation)  Rawalpindi  &  Ors.  (Constitution  

Petition No.43 of 2009) decided on 22nd March, 2011, had  

occasion to consider  the rights of  eunuchs and held as  

follows:-

“Needless  to  observe  that  eunuchs  in  their  rights are citizens of this country and subject to  the  Constitution  of  the  Islamic  Republic  of  Pakistan,  1973,  their  rights,  obligations  including  right  to  life  and  dignity  are  equally  protected.    Thus  no  discrimination,  for  any  reason, is possible against them as far as their  rights  and  obligations  are  concerned.   The  Government  functionaries  both  at  federal  and  provincial  levels  are  bound  to  provide  them  protection of life and property and secure their  dignity  as  well,  as  is  done  in  case  of  other  citizens.”

73. We may remind ourselves of the historical presence  

of  the  third  gender  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  the  

neighbouring countries.  

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74. Article 21, as already indicated, protects one’s right  

of  self-determination  of  the  gender  to  which  a  person  

belongs.   Determination  of  gender  to  which  a  person  

belongs  is  to  be  decided  by  the  person  concerned.   In  

other words, gender identity is integral to the dignity of an  

individual and is at the core of “personal autonomy” and  

“self-determination”. Hijras/Eunuchs, therefore, have to be  

considered  as  Third  Gender,  over  and  above  binary  

genders under our Constitution and the laws.

75. Articles  14,  15,  16,  19  and  21,  above  discussion,  

would indicate,  do not  exclude Hijras/Transgenders from  

its  ambit,  but  Indian  law  on  the  whole  recognize  the  

paradigm of binary genders of male and female, based on  

one’s  biological  sex.   As  already  indicated,  we  cannot  

accept the Corbett principle of “Biological Test”, rather we  

prefer to follow the psyche of the person in determining  

sex and gender and prefer the “Psychological Test” instead  

of “Biological Test”.  Binary notion of gender reflects in the  

Indian Penal  Code,  for  example,  Section 8,  10,  etc.  and

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also  in  the  laws  related  to  marriage,  adoption,  divorce,  

inheritance, succession and other welfare legislations like  

NAREGA,  2005,  etc.   Non-recognition  of  the  identity  of  

Hijras/Transgenders in the various legislations denies them  

equal  protection  of  law  and  they  face  wide-spread  

discrimination.   

76. Article 14 has used the expression “person” and the  

Article 15 has used the expression “citizen” and “sex” so  

also Article 16.  Article 19 has also used the expression  

“citizen”.  Article 21 has used the expression “person”.   All  

these expressions,  which  are  “gender  neutral”  evidently  

refer  to  human-beings.   Hence,  they  take  within  their  

sweep Hijras/Transgenders and are not as such limited to  

male  or  female  gender.   Gender  identity  as  already  

indicated forms the core of one’s personal self, based on  

self  identification,  not  on surgical  or  medical  procedure.  

Gender identity, in our view, is an integral part of sex and  

no citizen can be discriminated on the ground of gender  

identity, including those who identify as third gender.

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77. We,  therefore,  conclude  that  discrimination  on  the  

basis of sexual orientation or gender identity includes any  

discrimination, exclusion, restriction or preference, which  

has the effect of nullifying or transposing equality by the  

law or the equal protection of laws guaranteed under our  

Constitution,  and  hence we are  inclined  to  give  various  

directions  to  safeguard  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  

members of the TG community.   

..………………………..J (K.S. Radhakrishnan)

A.K. SIKRI,J.

78. I  have  carefully,  and  with  lot  of  interest,  gone  

through  the  perspicuous  opinion  of  my  brother  

Radhakrishnan,J.   I  am  entirely  in  agreement  with  the  

discussion  contained  in  the  said  judgment  on  all  the  

cardinal issues that have arisen for consideration in these  

proceedings. At the same time, having regard to the fact  

that the issues involved are of seminal importance, I am  

also inclined to pen down my thoughts.

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79. As is clear, these petitions essentially raise an  

issue of “Gender Identity”, which is the core issue. It has  

two facets, viz.:

“(a)  Whether a person who is born as a male  with  predominantly  female  orientation  (or  vice-versa),  has  a  right  to  get  himself  to  be  recognized  as  a  female as per his choice moreso, when such a person  after  having  undergone  operational  procedure,  changes his/her sex as well; (b) Whether transgender (TG), who are neither males  nor  females,  have  a  right  to  be  identified  and  categorized as a “third gender”?

80. We would hasten to add that it is the second issue  

with which we are primarily concerned in these petitions  

though in the process of  discussion,  first  issue which is  

somewhat inter-related, has also popped up.

81. Indubitably, the issue of choice of gender identify has  

all  the  trappings  of  a  human  rights.  That  apart,  as  it  

becomes clear from the reading of the judgment of my  

esteemed  Brother  Radhakrishnan,J.,  the  issue  is  not  

limited  to  the  exercise  of  choice  of  gender/sex.  Many

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rights which flow from this choice also  come into play,  

inasmuch not  giving  them the status  of  a  third  gender  

results in depriving the community of TGs of many of their  

valuable rights and privileges which other persons enjoy  

as  citizens  of  this  Country.  There  is  also  deprivation of  

social  and  cultural  participation  which  results  into  

eclipsing their  access  to  education  and health  services.  

Radhakrishnan,J.  has  exhaustively  described  the  term  

‘Transgender’ as an umbrella term which embraces within  

itself a wide range of identities and experiences including  

but  not  limited  to  pre-operative/post-operative  trans  

sexual  people  who  strongly  identify  with  the  gender  

opposite to their biological sex i.e. male/ female.  Therein,  

the  history  of  transgenders  in  India  is  also  traced  and  

while  doing so,  there is  mention of  upon the draconian  

legislation  enacted  during  the  British  Rule,  known  as  

Criminal  Tribes Act, 1871 which treated, per se, the entire  

community  of  Hizra  persons  as  innately  ‘criminals’,  

‘addicted  to  the  systematic  commission  of  non-bailable  

offences’.  

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82. With these introductory remarks, I revert to the two  

facets  of  pivotal  importance  mentioned  above.  Before  

embarking  on  the  discussion,  I  may  clarify  that  my  

endeavour  would  be  not  to  repeat  the  discussion  

contained in the judgment of my Brother Radhakrishnan,  

J., as I agree with every word written therein. However, at  

times,  if  some of  the observations are re-narrated,  that  

would  be  only  with  a  view  to  bring  continuity  in  the  

thought process.

(1) Re:  Right  of  a  person  to  have  the  gender  of  

his/her choice.

When a child is born, at the time of birth itself, sex is  

assigned to him/her.  A child would be treated with that  

sex thereafter, i.e. either a male or a female. However, as  

explained in detail in the accompanying judgment, some  

persons, though relatively very small in number, may born  

with bodies which incorporate both or certain aspects of  

both male or female physiology. It may also happen that  

though  a  person  is  born  as  a  male,  because  of  some  

genital anatomy problems his innate perception may be  

that  of  a  female  and  all  his  actions  would  be  female

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oriented.  The  position  may  be  exactly  the  opposite  

wherein a person born as female may behave like a male  

person.

83. In  earlier  times  though  one  could  observe  such  

characteristics, at the same time the underlying rationale  

or reason behind such a behavior was not known. Over a  

period of time, with in depth study and research of such  

physical and psychological factors bevaviour, the causes  

of this behaviour have become discernable which in turn,  

has led to some changes in societal norms. Society has  

starting  accepting,  though  slowly,  these  have  accepted  

the behavioral norms of such persons without treating it  

as abnormal. Further, medical science has leaped forward  

to such an extent that even physiology appearance of a  

person can be changed through surgical procedures, from  

male to female and vice-versa. In this way, such  persons  

are able to acquire the body which is in conformity with  

the perception of their gender/gender characteristics.  In  

order  to  ensure  that  law  also  keeps  pace  with  the  

aforesaid  progress  in  medical  science,  various countries

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have come out with Legislation conferring rights on such  

persons  to  recognize  their  gender  identity  based  on  

reassigned  sex  after  undergoing  Sex  Re-Assignment  

Surgery (SRS). Law and judgments given by the courts in  

other  countries  have  been  exhaustively  and  

grandiloquently  traversed  by  my  learned  Brother  in  his  

judgment,  discussing  amongst  others,  the  Yogyakarta  

principles,  the  relevant  provisions  of  the  Universal  

Declaration  of  Human Rights  1948  and highlighting  the  

statutory framework operating in those countries.

84. The  genesis  of  this  recognition  lies  in  the  

acknowledgment  of  another  fundamental  and  universal  

principal viz. “right of choice” given to an individual which  

is the inseparable part of human rights.  It is a matter of  

historical  significance  that  the  20th Century  is  often  

described as “the age of rights”.  

85. The  most  important  lesson  which  was  learnt  as  a  

result  of  Second  World  War  was  the  realization  by  the  

Governments  of  various  countries  about  the  human  

dignity which needed to be cherished and protected. It is

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for  this  reason  that  in  the  U.N.Charter,  1945,  adopted  

immediately after  the Second World War,  dignity of the  

individuals was mentioned as of core value. The almost  

contemporaneous Universal Declaration of Human Rights  

(1948) echoed same sentiments.

86. The underlined message in the aforesaid documents  

is the acknowledgment that human rights are individual  

and have a definite linkage of human development, both  

sharing  common  vision  and  with  a  common  purpose.  

Respect  for  human  rights  is  the  root  for  human  

development  and  realization  of  full  potential  of  each  

individual,  which  in  turn  leads  to  the  augmentation  of  

human  resources  with  progress  of  the  nation.  

Empowerment of the people through human development  

is the aim of human rights.

87. There  is  thus  a  universal  recognition  that  human  

rights are rights that “belong” to every person, and do not  

depend  on  the  specifics  of  the  individual  or  the  

relationship  between  the  right-holder  and  the  right-

grantor. Moreover, human rights exist irrespective of the

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question whether they are granted or recognized by the  

legal  and social  system within  which  we live.  They  are  

devices to evaluate these existing arrangements: ideally,  

these arrangements should not violate human rights.  In  

other  words,  human  rights  are  moral,  pre-legal  rights.  

They are not  granted by people nor  can they be taken  

away by them.

88. In international human rights law, equality is found  

upon  two  complementary  principles:  non-discrimination  

and  reasonable  differentiation.  The  principle  of  non-

discrimination seeks to ensure that all persons can equally  

enjoy  and  exercise  all  their  rights  and  freedoms.  

Discrimination  occurs  due  to  arbitrary  denial  of  

opportunities for  equal  participation.  For example,  when  

public facilities and services are set on standards out of  

the reach of the TGs, it leads to exclusion and denial of  

rights. Equality not only implies preventing discrimination  

(example,  the  protection  of  individuals  against  

unfavourable treatment by introducing anti- discrimination  

laws),  but  goes  beyond  in  remedying  discrimination

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against  groups  suffering  systematic  discrimination  in  

society. In concrete terms, it means embracing the notion  

of  positive  rights,  affirmative  action  and  reasonable  

accommodation.

89. Nevertheless,  the  Universal  Declaration  of  Human  

Rights recognizes that all human beings are born free and  

equal  in  dignity  and  rights  and,  since  the  Covenant’s  

provisions apply fully to all members of society, persons  

with  disabilities  are  clearly  entitled  to  the  full  range of  

rights  recognized  in  the  Covenant.  Moreover,  the  

requirement contained in Article 2 of the Covenant that  

the  rights  enunciated  will  be  exercised  without  

discrimination  of  any  kind  based  on  certain  specified  

grounds or other status clearly applies to cover persons  

with disabilities.

90. India  attained  independence  within  two  years  of  

adoption  of  the  aforesaid  U.N.Charter  and  it  was  but  

natural  that  such  a  Bill  of  Rights  would  assume  prime  

importance  insofar  as  thinking  of  the  members  of  the  

Constituent Assembly goes.  It  in  fact  did and we found

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chapter  on  fundamental  rights  in  Part-III  of  the  

Constitution. It is not necessary for me, keeping in view  

the  topic  of  today’s  discussion,  to  embark  on  detailed  

discussion on Chapter-III. Some of the provisions relevant  

for our purposes would be Article 14, 15,16 and 21 of the  

Constitution which have already been adverted to in detail  

in  the  accompanying  judgment.  At  this  juncture  it  also  

needs to be emphasized simultaneously is that in addition  

to  the  fundamental  rights,  Constitution  makers  also  

deemed  it  proper  to  impose  certain  obligations  on  the  

State in the form of “Directive Principles of State Policy”  

(Part-IV)  as  a  mark  of  good  governance.  It  is  this  part  

which provides an ideal and purpose to our Constitution  

and delineates certain principles which are fundamental in  

the  governance  of  the  country.  Dr.Ambedkar  had  

explained the purpose of these Directive Principles in the  

following manner (See Constituent Assembly debates):

“The Directive Principles are like  the  Instruments  of  Instructions  which  were  issued  to  the  Governor-General  and the Governors of Colonies, and to  those  of  India  by  the  British  Government  under  the  1935  Government of India Act. What is called

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“Directive Principles” is merely another  name  for  the  Instrument  of  Instructions. The only difference is that  they are instructions to the legislature  and  the  executive.  Whoever  capture  power will  not be free to do what he  likes with it. In the exercise of it he will  have  to  respect  these  instruments  of  instructions which are called Directive  Principles”.

91.  The basic spirit of our Constitution is to provide each  

and every person of the nation equal opportunity to grow  

as  a human being,  irrespective of  race,  caste,  religion,  

community  and  social  status.  Granville  Austin  while  

analyzing the functioning of Indian Constitution in first 50  

years ha described three distinguished strands of Indian  

Constitution:  (i)protecting  national  unity  and  integrity,  

(ii)establishing  the  institution  and  spirit  of  democracy;  

and (iii) fostering social reforms. The Strands are mutually  

dependent,  and  inextricably  intertwined  in  what  he  

elegantly  describes  as  “a  seamless  web”.  And  there  

cannot be social reforms till it is ensured that each and  

every  citizen  of  this  country  is  able  to  exploit  his/her  

potentials  to  the  maximum.  The  Constitution,  although  

drafted by the Constituent Assembly, was meant for the

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people of India and that is why it is given by the people to  

themselves as expressed in the opening words “We the  

People”. What is the most important gift to the common  

person given by this Constitution is “fundamental rights”  

which may be called Human Rights as well.

92.   The  concept  of  equality  in  Article  14  so  also  the  

meaning of the words ‘life’, ‘liberty’ and ‘law’ in Article 21  

have  been  considerably  enlarged  by  judicial  decisions.  

Anything which is  not  ‘reasonable,  just  and fair’  is  not  

treated to be equal and is, therefore, violative of Article  

14.

93.   Speaking for the vision of our founding fathers, in  

State of Karnataka v. Rangnatha Reddy (AIR 1978 SC  

215),  this  Court  speaking  through  Justice  Krishna  Iyer  

observed:

              “The social philosophy of the  Constitution  shapes  creative  judicial  vision  and  orientation.   Our  nation  has,  as  its  dynamic  doctrine,  economic  democracy  sans which  political democracy is chimerical. We  say  so  because  our  Constitution,  in  Parts  III  and  IV  and  elsewhere,

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ensouls such a value system, and the  debate in this case puts precisely this  soul  in peril….Our thesis is  that the  dialectics of social justice should not  be missed if the synthesis of Parts III  and  Part  IV  is  to  influence  State  action  and  court  pronouncements.  Constitutional  problems  cannot  be  studied in a socio-economic vacuum,  since socio-cultural  changes are the  source  of  the  new  values,  and  sloughing off old legal thought is part  of the process the new equity-loaded  legality. A judge is a social scientist  in his role as constitutional invigilator  and fails functionally if he forgets this  dimension in his complex duties.”

94. While  interpreting  Art.  21,  this  Court  has  

comprehended  such  diverse  aspects  as  children  in  jail  

entitled to special treatment (Sheela Barse vs. Union of  

India [(1986)3 SCC 596], health hazard due to pollution  

(Mehta  M.C.  v.  Union  of  India [(1987)  4  SCC  463],  

beggars  interest  in  housing (Kalidas Vs.  State of J&K  

[(1987)  3  SCC  430]  health  hazard  from  harmful  drugs  

(Vincent Panikurlangara Vs.  Union of India AIR 1987  

SC 990), right of speedy trial (Reghubir Singh Vs. State  

of  Bihar,  AIR  1987  SC  149),  handcuffing  of  

prisoners(Aeltemesh Rein Vs. Union of India, AIR 1988

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SC  1768),  delay  in  execution  of  death  sentence,  

immediate  medical  aid  to  injured  persons(Parmanand  

Katara Vs. Union of India, AIR 1989 SC 2039), starvation  

deaths(Kishen Vs. State of Orissa, AIR 1989 SC 677),  

the  right  to  know(Reliance  Petrochemicals  Ltd. Vs.  

Indian  Express  Newspapers  Bombay  Pvt.  Ltd. AIR  

1989 SC 190), right to open trial(Kehar Singh Vs. State  

(Delhi Admn.) AIR 1988 SC 1883), inhuman conditions an  

after-care home(Vikram Deo Singh Tomar Vs. State of  

Bihar, AIR 1988 SC 1782).

95. A most remarkable feature of this expansion of Art.21  

is  that  many  of  the  non-justiciable  Directive  Principles  

embodied in  Part  IV of  the Constitution have now been  

resurrected  as  enforceable  fundamental  rights  by  the  

magic wand of judicial activism, playing on Art.21 e.g.

(a)  Right  to  pollution-free water  and air  (Subhash  

Kumar Vs. State of Bihar, AIR 1991 SC 420).

(b)  Right  to  a  reasonable  residence  (Shantistar  

Builders Vs.  Narayan Khimalal  Totame AIR 1990 SC  

630).

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(c)  Right  to  food (Supra note 14),  clothing,  decent  

environment  (supra  note  20)  and  even  protection  of  

cultural  heritage (Ram Sharan Autyanuprasi Vs.  UOI,  

AIR 1989 SC 549) .

(d)  Right  of  every  child  to  a  full  development  

(Shantistar  Builders Vs.  Narayan  Khimalal  Totame  

AIR 1990 SC 630).

(e)  Right  of  residents  of  hilly-areas  to  access  to  

roads(State of H.P. Vs.  Umed Ram Sharma, AIR 1986  

SC 847).

(f)  Right  to  education  (Mohini  Jain Vs.  State  of  

Karnataka, AIR 1992 SC 1858), but not for a professional  

degree (Unni Krishnan J.P. Vs. State of A.P., AIR 1993  

SC 2178).

96. A corollary of this development is that while so long  

the  negative  language  of  Art.21  and  use  of  the  word  

‘deprived’  was  supposed to  impose  upon the  State  the  

negative duty not to interfere with the life or liberty of an  

individual  without  the  sanction  of  law,   the  width  and  

amplitude of  this  provision has now imposed a  positive

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obligation (Vincent Panikurlangara Vs. UOI AIR 1987 SC  

990)  upon  the  State  to  take  steps  for  ensuring  to  the  

individual a better enjoyment of his life and dignity, e.g. –

(i)  Maintenance  and  improvement  of  public  health  

(Vincent Panikurlangara Vs. UOI AIR 1987 SC 990).

(ii)  Elimination  of  water  and  air  pollution  (Mehta  

M.C. Vs. UOI (1987) 4 SCC 463).

(iii) Improvement of means of communication (State  

of H.P. Vs. Umed Ram Sharma AIR 1986 SC 847).

(iv)  Rehabilitation of  bonded labourers  (Bandhuva  

Mukti Morcha Vs. UOI, AIR 1984 SC 802).

(v)  Providing  human  conditions  if  prisons  (Sher  

Singh Vs.  State  of  Punjab AIR  1983  SC  465)  and  

protective homes (Sheela Barse Vs.  UOI (1986) 3 SCC  

596).

(vi) Providing hygienic condition in a slaughter-house  

(Buffalo  Traders  Welfare  Ass. Vs.  Maneka  Gandhi  

(1994) Suppl (3) SCC 448) .

97. The common golden thread which passes through all  

these  pronouncements  is  that  Art.21  guarantees

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enjoyment  of  life  by  all  citizens  of  this  country  with  

dignity,  viewing  this  human  rights  in  terms  of  human  

development.

98. The concepts of justice social, economic and political,  

equality  of  status  and  of  opportunity  and  of  assuring  

dignity  of  the  individual  incorporated  in  the  Preamble,  

clearly recognize  the right of  one and all  amongst  the  

citizens of these basic essentials designed to flower the  

citizen’s personality to its fullest. The concept of equality  

helps the citizens in reaching their highest potential.  

99. Thus,  the  emphasis  is  on  the  development  of  an  

individual in all respects. The basic principle of the dignity  

and freedom of the individual is common to all  nations,  

particularly  those having democratic  set  up.  Democracy  

requires  us  to  respect  and  develop  the  free  spirit  of  

human  being  which  is  responsible  for  all  progress  in  

human history. Democracy is also a method by which we  

attempt to raise the living standard of the people and to  

give  opportunities  to  every  person  to  develop  his/her  

personality.  It  is  founded  on  peaceful  co-existence  and

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cooperative  living.  If  democracy  is  based  on  the  

recognition of the individuality and dignity of man, as a  

fortiori we have to recognize the right of a human being to  

choose  his  sex/gender  identity  which  is  integral  his/her  

personality and is one of the most basic aspect of self-

determination  dignity  and  freedom.  In  fact,  there  is  a  

growing recognition that the true measure of development  

of a nation is not economic growth; it is human dignity.

100.   More  than  225  years  ago,  Immanuel  Kant  

propounded  the  doctrine  of  free  will,  namely  the  free  

willing individual as a natural law ideal. Without going into  

the detail analysis of his aforesaid theory of justice (as we  

are not concerned with the analysis of his jurisprudence)  

what  we  want  to  point  out  is  his  emphasis  on  the  

“freedom” of human volition.  The concepts of volition and  

freedom are “pure”, that is  not drawn from experience.  

They are independent of any particular body of moral or  

legal  rules.  They  are  presuppositions  of  all  such  rules,  

valid and necessary for all of them.

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101.   Over a period of time, two divergent interpretations  

of the Kantian criterion of justice came to be discussed.  

One trend was an increasing stress on the maximum of  

individual freedom of action as the end of law. This may  

not be accepted and was criticized by the protagonist of  

‘hedonist utilitarianism’, notably Benthem. This school of  

thoughts  laid  emphasis  on  the  welfare  of  the  society  

rather than an individual by propounding the principle of  

maximum of happiness to most of the people. Fortunately,  

in the instant case, there is no such dichotomy between  

the   individual  freedom/liberty  we  are  discussing,  as  

against public good. On the contrary, granting the right to  

choose gender leads to public good. The second tendency  

of Kantian criterion of justice was found in re-interpreting  

“freedom” in terms not merely of absence of restraint but  

in terms of attainment of individual perfection. It  is this  

latter trend with which we are concerned in the present  

case  and  this  holds  good  even  today.  As  pointed  out  

above,  after  the  Second  World  War,  in  the  form  of  

U.N.Charter and thereafter there is more emphasis on the  

attainment of individual perfection. In that united sense at

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least  there is  a  revival  of  natural  law theory of  justice.  

Blackstone,  in  the  opening  pages  in  his    ‘Vattelian  

Fashion’  said  that  the  principal  aim  of  society  “is  to  

protect  individuals  in  the  enjoyment  of  those  absolute  

rights which were vested in them by the immutable laws  

of nature……”

102.   In  fact,  the  recognition  that  every  individual  has  

fundamental  right  to  achieve  the  fullest  potential,  is  

founded  on  the  principle  that  all  round  growth  of  an  

individual leads to common public good. After all, human  

beings  are  also  valuable  asset  of  any  country  who  

contribute to the growth and welfare of their nation and  

the society. A person who is born with a particular sex and  

his forced to grow up identifying with that sex, and not a  

sex  that  his/her  psychological  behavior  identifies  with,  

faces innumerable obstacles in growing up. In an article  

appeared  in  the  magazine  “Eye”  of  the  Sunday  Indian  

Express (March 9-15, 2014) a person born as a boy but  

with trappings of female ( who is now a female after SRS)  

has narrated these difficulties in the following manner:

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“The other children treated me as a  boy, but I preferred playing with girls.  Unfortunately,  grown-ups  consider  that okay only as long as you are a  small child. The constant inner conflict  made things difficult for me and, as I  grew  up,  I  began  to  dread  social  interactions”.  

103.   Such a person, carrying dual entity simultaneously,  

would  encounter  mental  and  psychological  difficulties  

which  would  hinder  his/her  normal  mental  and  even  

physical growth. It is not even easy for such a person to  

take a decision to undergo SRS procedure which requires  

strong  mental  state  of  affairs.  However,  once  that  is  

decided and the sex is changed in tune with psychological  

behavior,  it  facilitates spending the life smoothly.   Even  

the process of transition is not smooth.  The  transition  

from a man to a woman is not an overnight process. It is a  

“painfully” long procedure that requires a lot of patience.  

A  person  must  first  undergo  hormone  therapy  and,  if  

possible, live as a member of the desired sex for a while.  

To be eligible for hormone therapy, the person needs at  

least two psychiatrists to certify that he or she is mentally  

sound,  and  schizophrenia,  depression  and  transvestism

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have  to  be  ruled  out  first.  The  psychiatric  evaluation  

involved a serious a questions on how Sunaina felt, when  

she got to know of her confusion and need for sex change,  

whether  she is  a  recluse,  her  socio-economic  condition,  

among other things.

104.    In  the  same  article  appearing  in  the  “Eye”  

referred  to  above,  the  person  who had  undergone  the  

operation  and became a  complete  girl,  Sunaina  (name  

changed) narrates the benefit which ensued because of  

change  in  sex,  in  harmony  with  her  emotional  and  

psychological  character,  as  is  clear  from  the  following  

passage in that article:  

“Like  many  other  single  people  in  the  city,  she  can  spend  hours  watching  Friends,  and  reading  thrillers  and  Harry  Potter.    A new happiness has taken seed  in her and she says it does not feel that  she ever had a male body. “I am a person  who likes to laugh. Till my surgery, behind  every smile of mine, there was a struggle.  Now it’s about time that I laughed for real.  I have never had a relationship in my life,  because somewhere,  I  always wanted to  be treated as a girl.    Now, that I  am a  woman,  I  am  open  to  a  new  life,  new  relationships.  I  don’t  have  to  hide  anymore, I don’t feel trapped anymore. I  love coding and my job. I love cooking. I

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am learning French and when my left foot  recovers fully, I plan to learn dancing. And,  for the first time this year, I will vote with  my  new  name.  I  am  looking  forward  to  that,” she says.

105.    If a person has changed his/her sex in tune with  

his/her gender characteristics and perception ,which has  

become possible because of the advancement in medical  

science, and when that is permitted by in medical ethics  

with no legal embargo, we do not find any impediment,  

legal or otherwise, in giving due recognition to the gender  

identity based on the reassign sex after undergoing SRS.   

106.   For these reasons, we are of the opinion that even  

in the absence of any statutory regime in this country, a  

person has a constitutional right to get the recognition as  

male  or  female  after  SRS,  which  was  not  only  his/her  

gender  characteristic  but  has  become  his/her  physical  

form as well.   

(2) Re: Right of TG to be identified and categorized as  

“third gender”.

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107.   At  the  outset,  it  may  be  clarified  that  the  term  

‘transgender’ is used in a wider sense, in the present age.  

Even Gay, Lesbian, bisexual are included by the descriptor  

‘transgender’.   Etymologically,  the term ‘transgender’  is  

derived  from  two  words,  namely  ‘trans’  and  ‘gender’.  

Former is a Latin word which means ‘across’ or ‘beyond’.  

The grammatical  meaning of ‘transgender’,  therefore,  is  

across or beyond gender. This has come to be known as  

umbrella  term  which  includes  Gay  men,  Lesbians,  

bisexuals, and cross dressers within its scope. However,  

while dealing with the present issue we are not concerned  

with  this  aforesaid  wider  meaning  of  the  expression  

transgender.

108.   It  is  to be emphasized that Transgender in  India  

have assumed distinct and separate class/category which  

is not prevalent in other parts of the World except in some  

neighbouring countries .  In this country, TG community  

comprise of  Hijaras, enunch, Kothis, Aravanis, Jogappas,  

Shiv-Shakthis etc.  In Indian community transgender are  

referred  as  Hizra  or  the  third  gendered  people.  There

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exists  wide  range  of  transgender-related  identities,  

cultures, or experience –including Hijras, Aravanis, Kothis,  

jogtas/Jogappas,  and  Shiv-Shakthis  (Hijras:  They  are  

biological  males  who reject  their  masculinity  identity  in  

due course of time to identify either as women, or ‘not  

men’. Aravanis: Hijras in Tamil Nadu identify as ‘Aravani’.  

Kothi:  Kothis  are  heterogeneous  group.  Kothis  can  be  

described as biological males who show varying degrees  

of  ‘feminity’.  Jogtas/Jogappas:  They  are  those  who  are  

dedicated to serve as servant of Goddess Renukha Devi  

whose temples are present in Maharashtra and Karnataka.  

Sometimes, Jogti Hijras are used to denote such male-to-

female transgender persons who are devotees of Goddess  

Renukha  and  are  also  from the  Hijra  community.  Shiv-

Shakthis:  They  are  considered  as  males  who  are  

possessed by or particularly close to a goddess and who  

have feminine gender expression). The way they behave  

and acts differs from the normative gender role of a men  

and women. For them, furthering life is far more difficult  

since  such  people  are  neither  categorized  as  men  nor  

women and this deviation is unacceptable to society’s vast

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majority.  Endeavour  to  live  a  life  with  dignity  is  even  

worse.  Obviously  transvestites,  the  hijra  beg  from  

merchants who quickly,  under  threat  of  obscene abuse,  

respond  to  the  silent  demands  of  such  detested  

individuals.  On  occasion,  especially  festival  days,  they  

press their claims with boisterous and ribald singing and  

dancing.(  A  Right  to  Exist:  Eunuchs  and  the  State  in  

Nineteenth-Century  India  Laurence  W.  Preston  Modern  

Asian Studies, Vol.21,No.2 (1987), pp.371-387).  

109.   Therefore, we make it clear at the outset that when  

we  discuss  about  the  question  of  conferring  distinct  

identity, we are restrictive in our meaning which has to be  

given to TG community i.e. hijra etc., as explained above.   

110.   Their historical background and individual scenario  

has been stated in detail in the accompanying judgment  

rendered by my learned Brother. Few things which follow  

from this discussion are summed up below:

“(a) Though in the past TG in India was treated  with  great  respect,  that  does  not  remain  the  scenario any longer. Attrition in their status was

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triggered with the passing of the Criminal Tribes  Act, 1871 which deemed the entire community of  Hijara persons as innately ‘criminal’ and ‘adapted  to  the  systematic  commission  of  non-bailable  offences’.  This dogmatism and indoctrination of  Indian  people  with  aforesaid  presumption,  was  totally capricious and nefarious. There could not  have been more harm caused to this community  with  the  passing  of  the  aforesaid  brutal  Legislation during British Regime with the vicious  and savage this mind set.  To add insult to the  irreparable  injury  caused,  Section  377  of  the  Indian Penal  Code was misused and abused as  there was a tendency, in British period, to arrest  and  prosecute  TG  persons  under  Section  377  merely  on  suspicion.  To  undergo  this  sordid  historical harm caused to TGs of India, there is a  need for incessant efforts with effervescence.

(b) There may have been marginal improvement  in the social and economic condition of TGs  in  India. It is still far from satisfactory and these TGs  continue  to  face  different  kinds  of  economic  blockade and social degradation. They still  face  multiple  forms  of  oppression  in  this  country.  Discrimination qua them is clearly discernable in  various fields including health care, employment,  education, social cohesion etc.

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(c) The TGs are also citizens of this country. They  also  have  equal  right  to  achieve  their  full  potential as human beings. For this purpose, not  only they are entitled to proper education, social  assimilation,  access  to  public  and other  places  but  employment  opportunities  as  well.  The  discussion  above  while  dealing  with  the  first  issue, therefore, equally applies to this issue as  well.  

111.    We are of the firm opinion that by recognizing such  

TGs as third gender,  they would be able to  enjoy their  

human rights,  to which they are largely deprived of  for  

want of this recognition. As mentioned above, the issue of  

transgender is  not merely a social  or  medical  issue but  

there is a need to adopt human right approach towards  

transgenders  which  may  focus  on  functioning  as  an  

interaction  between  a  person  and  their  environment  

highlighting the role of society and changing the stigma  

attached to them. TGs face many disadvantages due to  

various reasons, particularly for gender abnormality which  

in certain level needs to physical and mental disability. Up  

till recently they were subjected to cruelty, pity or charity.

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Fortunately, there is a paradigm shift in thinking from the  

aforesaid approach to a rights based approach. Though,  

this  may  be  the  thinking  of  human  rights  activist,  the  

society has not kept pace with this shift. There appears to  

be limited public knowledge and understanding of same-

sex sexual orientation and people whose gender identity  

and expression are incongruent with their biological sex.  

As  a  result  of  this  approach,  such  persons  are  socially  

excluded from the mainstream of the society and they are  

denied  equal  access  to  those  fundamental  rights  and  

freedoms  that  the  other  people  enjoy  freely.(See,  

Hijras/Transgender  Women  in  India:  HIV,  Human  Rights  

and  Social  Exclusion,  UNDP  report  on  India  Issue:  

December, 2010).  

112.   Some of the common and reported problem that  

transgender  most  commonly  suffer  are:  harassment  by  

the police in  public  places,  harassment  at  home,  police  

entrapment, rape, discriminations, abuse in public places  

et.al.   The  other  major  problems  that  the  transgender  

people face in their  daily life  are discrimination,  lack of

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educational  facilities,  lack  of  medical  facilities,  

homelessness,  unemployment,  depression,  hormone  pill  

abuse, tobacco and alcohol abuse, and problems related  

to  marriage  and  adoption.  In  spite  of  the  adoption  of  

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in the year  

1948, the inherent dignity, equality, respect and rights of  

all  human beings throughout the world, the transgender  

are denied basic human rights. This denial is premised on  

a prevalent juridical assumption that the law should target  

discrimination  based  on  sex  (i.e.,  whether  a  person  is  

anatomically  male  or  female),  rather  than  gender  (i.e.,  

whether  a  person  has  qualities  that  society  consider  

masculine or  feminine  (Katherine  M.Franke,  The Central  

Mistake of Sex Discrimination Law: the Disaggregation of  

Sex from Gender, 144 U.Pa.Rev.1,3 (1995) (arguing that  

by defining sex in biological terms, the law has failed to  

distinguish  sex  from  gender,  and  sexual  differentiation  

from  sex  discrimination).  Transgender  people  are  

generally  excluded  from  the  society  and  people  think  

transgenderism  as  a  medical  disease.  Much  like  the  

disability,  which  in  earlier  times  was  considered  as  an

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illness but later on looked upon as a right based approach.  

The question whether transgenderism is a disease is hotly  

debated in both the transgender and medical-psychiatric  

communities. But a prevalent view regarding this is that  

transgenderism is not a disease at all, but a benign normal  

variant of the human experience akin to left-handedness.

113.   Therefore,  gender  identification  becomes  very  

essential  component which is  required for  enjoying civil  

rights by this community. It is only with this recognition  

that  many rights  attached to  the  sexual  recognition  as  

‘third gender’ would be available to this community more  

meaningfully  viz.  the  right  to  vote,  the  right  to  own  

property, the right to marry, the right to claim a formal  

identity through a passport and a ration card, a driver’s  

license, the right to education, employment, health so on.

114.   Further,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  a  

transgender must be denied of basic human rights which  

includes  Right  to  life  and  liberty  with  dignity,  Right  to  

Privacy and freedom of expression, Right to Education and  

Empowerment,  Right  against  violence,  Right  against

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Exploitation and Right against Discrimination. Constitution  

has fulfilled its duty of providing rights to transgenders.  

Now it’s time for us to recognize this and to extend and  

interpret the Constitution in such a manner to ensure a  

dignified  life  of  transgender  people.   All  this  can  be  

achieved  if  the  beginning  is  made with  the  recognition  

that TG as third gender.

115.   In order to translate the aforesaid rights of TGs into  

reality,  it  becomes imperative to first  assign them their  

proper ‘sex’. As is stated earlier, at the time of birth of a  

child itself, sex is assigned. However, it is either male or  

female.  In  the  process,  the  society  as  well  as  law,  has  

completely ignored the basic human right of TGs to give  

them their appropriate sex categorization. Up to now, they  

have either been treated as male or female. This is not  

only  improper  as  it  is  far  from truth,  but  indignified  to  

these   TGs and violates their human rights.

116.    Though there may not  be any statutory regime  

recognizing ‘third gender’ for these TGs. However, we find  

enough  justification  to  recognize  this  right  of  theirs  in

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natural  law  sphere.  Further,  such  a  justification  can  be  

traced to the various provisions contained in Part III of the  

Constitution relating to ‘Fundamental Rights’. In addition  

to  the  powerful  justification  accomplished  in  the  

accompanying opinion of my esteemed Brother, additional  

raison d’etre for this conclusion is stated hereinafter.  

117.   We  are  in  the  age  of  democracy,  that  too  

substantive and liberal democracy. Such a democracy is  

not  based  solely  on  the  rule  of  people  through  their  

representatives’  namely  formal  democracy.  It  also  has  

other  percepts  like  Rule  of  Law,  human  rights,  

independence of judiciary, separation of powers etc.

118.   There is a recognition to the hard realty that without  

protection for human rights there can be no democracy  

and no justification for democracy. In this scenario, while  

working within the realm of separation of powers (which is  

also  fundamental  to  the  substantive  democracy),  the  

judicial role is not only to decide the dispute before the  

Court, but to uphold the rule of law and ensure access to  

justice to the marginalized section of the society. It cannot

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be denied that TGs belong to the unprivileged class which  

is a marginalized section.

119.  The role of the Court is to understand the central  

purpose and theme of the Constitution for the welfare of  

the society. Our Constitution, like the law of the society, is  

a living organism.  It is based on a factual and social realty  

that is constantly changing. Sometimes a change in the  

law  precedes  societal  change  and  is  even  intended  to  

stimulate it. Sometimes, a change in the law is the result  

in the social realty. When we discuss about the rights of  

TGs in the constitutional context, we find that in order to  

bring about complete paradigm shift, law has to play more  

pre-dominant role. As TGs in India, are neither male nor  

female,  treating  them  as  belonging  to  either  of  the  

aforesaid categories, is the denial of these constitutional  

rights. It is the denial of social justice which in turn has the  

effect of denying political and economic justice.  

120.   In  Dattatraya  Govind  Mahajan vs.  State  of  

Maharashtra (AIR 1977 SC 915) this Court observed:

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“Our Constitution is a tryst with  destiny,  preamble  with  luscent  solemnity in the words ‘Justice – social,  economic  and  political.’  The  three  great  branches  of  Government,  as  creatures  of  the  Constitution,  must  remember  this  promise  in  their  fundamental role and forget it at their  peril, for to do so will be a betrayal of  chose high values and goals which this  nation  set  for  itself  in  its  objective  Resolution  and  whose  elaborate  summation appears  in  Part  IV  of  the  Paramount Parchment.  The history of  our  country’s  struggle  for  independence was the story of a battle  between the forces of socio-economic  exploitation  and  the  masses  of  deprived  people  of  varying  degrees  and  the  Constitution  sets  the  new  sights of the nation…..Once we grasp  the  dharma  of  the  Constitution,  the  new  orientation  of  the  karma  of  adjudication  becomes  clear.  Our  founding fathers,  aware of  our  social  realities, forged our fighting faith and  integrating  justice  in  its  social,  economic and political  aspects.  While  contemplating  the  meaning  of  the  Articles  of  the  Organic  Law,  the  Supreme Court shall not disown Social  Justice.”

121.   Oliver  Wendlle  Holmes said:  “the  life  of  law has  

been logical; it has been experience”.  It may be added  

that ‘the life of law is not just logic or experience. The life  

of law is renewable based on experience and logic, which

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adapted law to  the  new social  realty’.  Recognizing  this  

fact,  the  aforesaid  provisions  of  the  Constitution  are  

required to be given new and dynamic meaning with the  

inclusion of rights of TGs as well. In this process, the first  

and foremost right is to recognize TGs as ‘third gender’ in  

law as well. This is a recognition of their right of equality  

enshrined in Art.14 as well as their human right to life with  

dignity,  which  is  the  mandate  of  the  Art.21  of  the  

Constitution. This interpretation is in consonance with new  

social needs. By doing so, this Court is only bridging the  

gap between the law and life and that is the primary role  

of  the Court  in  a  democracy.  It  only amounts to  giving  

purposive interpretation to the aforesaid provisions of the  

Constitution so that it can adapt to the changes in realty.  

Law without purpose has no raison d’etre. The purpose of  

law is the evolution of a happy society. As Justice Iyer has  

aptly put:  

“The  purpose  of  law  is  the  establishment  of  the  welfare  of  society  “and  a  society  whose  members  enjoy  welfare  and  happiness  may be described as  a  just  society.  It  is  a  negation  of

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justice to say that some members,  some  groups,  some  minorities,  some  individuals  do  not  have  welfare:  on  the  other  hand  they  suffer  from  ill-fare.  So  it  is  axiomatic that law, if  it  is  to fulfil  itself,  must  produce  a  contented,  dynamic  society  which  is  at  once  meting out justice to its members.”  

122.  It is now very well recognized that the Constitution is  

a living character; its interpretation must be dynamic. It  

must be understood in a way that intricate and advances  

modern  realty.  The  judiciary  is  the  guardian  of  the  

Constitution and by ensuring to grant legitimate right that  

is due to TGs, we are simply protecting the Constitution  

and the  democracy inasmuch as  judicial  protection and  

democracy in general and of human rights in particular is  

a characteristic of our vibrant democracy.

123.   As  we  have  pointed  out  above,  our  Constitution  

inheres  liberal  and substantive democracy with  rule  of  

law as an important and fundamental pillar. It has its own  

internal  morality  based  on  dignity  and  equality  of  all  

human  beings.  Rule  of  law  demands  protection  of  

individual human rights.  Such rights are to be guaranteed

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to each and every human being. These TGs, even though  

insignificant  in  numbers,  are  still  human  beings  and  

therefore  they  have  every  right  to  enjoy  their  human  

rights.

124.   In National Human Rights Commission vs. State of  

Arunachal  Pradesh  (AIR  1996  SC  1234),  This  Court  

observed:

“We are a country governed by  the  Rule  of  Law.  Our  Constitution  confers certain rights on every human  being  and  certain  other  rights  on  citizens.  Every  person  is  entitled  to  equality  before  the  law  and  equal  protection of the laws.”   

125.   The rule of law is not merely public order.  The rule  

of  law  is  social  justice  based  on  public  order.  The  law  

exists to ensure proper social life. Social life, however, is  

not a goal in itself but a means to allow the individual to  

life in dignity and development himself. The human being  

and human rights underlie this substantive perception of  

the rule of law, with a proper balance among the different  

rights and between human rights and the proper needs of  

society. The substantive rule of law “is the rule of proper

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law,  which  balances  the  needs  of  society  and  the  

individual.” This is the rule of law that strikes a balance  

between society’s need for political independence, social  

equality,  economic  development,  and internal  order,  on  

the one hand, and the needs of the individual, his personal  

liberty, and his human dignity on the other. It is the duty  

of the Court to protect this rich concept of the rule of law.

126.   By recognizing TGs as third gender, this Court is not  

only upholding the rule of law but also advancing justice to  

the class, so far deprived of their legitimate natural and  

constitutional rights. It is, therefore, the only just solution  

which ensures justice not only to TGs but also justice to  

the society as well. Social justice does not mean equality  

before  law  in  papers  but  to  translate  the  spirit  of  the  

Constitution, enshrined in the Preamble, the Fundamental  

Rights  and  the  Directive  Principles  of  State  Policy  into  

action,  whose arms are long enough to bring within its  

reach and embrace this  right  of  recognition to  the TGs  

which legitimately belongs to them.  

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127.   Aristotle opined that treating all equal things equal  

and all  unequal things unequal amounts to justice. Kant  

was of  the  view that  at  the basis  of  all  conceptions  of  

justice,  no matter which culture or religion has inspired  

them, lies the golden rule that you should treat others as  

you  would  want  everybody  to  treat  everybody  else,  

including  yourself.  When  Locke  conceived  of  individual  

liberties,  the  individuals  he  had  in  mind  were  

independently  rich  males.  Similarly,  Kant  thought  of  

economically  self-sufficient  males  as  the  only  possible  

citizens of a liberal democratic state. These theories may  

not be relevant in today’s context as it is perceived that  

the bias of their  perspective is all  too obvious to us.  In  

post-traditional liberal democratic theories of  justice, the  

background assumption is that humans have equal value  

and should, therefore, be treated as equal, as well as by  

equal  laws.  This  can  be  described  as  ‘Reflective  

Equilibrium’.  The  method  of  Reflective  Equilibrium  was  

first introduced by Nelson Goodman in ‘Fact, Fiction and  

Forecast’ (1955). However, it is John Rawls who elaborated  

this method of Reflective Equilibrium by introducing the

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conception  of  ‘Justice  as  Fairness’.  In  his  ‘Theory  of  

Justice’, Rawls has proposed a model of just institutions for  

democratic  societies.  Herein  he  draws  on  certain  pre-

theoretical  elementary  moral  beliefs  (‘considered  

judgments’),  which  he  assumes  most  members  of  

democratic  societies  would  accept.  “[Justice  as  fairness  

[….] tries to draw solely upon basic intuitive ideas that are  

embedded in the political  institutions of a constitutional  

democratic  regime  and  the  public  traditions  of  their  

interpretations. Justice as fairness is a political conception  

in  part  because  it  starts  from within  a  certain  political  

tradition. Based on this preliminary understanding of just  

institutions in a democratic society, Rawls aims at a set of  

universalistic rules with the help of which the justice of  

present formal and informal institutions can be assessed.  

The  ensuing  conception  of  justice  is  called  ‘justice  as  

fairness’. When we combine Rawls’s notion of Justice as  

Fairness with the notions of Distributive Justice, to which  

Noble Laureate Prof. Amartya Sen has also subscribed, we  

get jurisprudential basis for doing justice to the Vulnerable  

Groups which definitely include TGs. Once it is accepted

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that  the  TGs  are  also  part  of  vulnerable  groups  and  

marginalized section of the society, we are only bringing  

them  within  the  fold  of  aforesaid  rights  recognized  in  

respect of other classes falling in the marginalized group.  

This is the minimum riposte in an attempt to assuage the  

insult and injury suffered by them so far as to pave  

way for fast tracking the realization of their human rights.

128.   The aforesaid, thus, are my reasons for treating TGs  

as  ‘third  gender’  for  the  purposes  of  safeguarding  and  

enforcing appropriately their rights guaranteed under the  

Constitution.  These  are  my  reasons  in  support  of  our  

Constitution to the two issues in these petitions.

…………………….J.  (A.K.Sikri)

129.    We, therefore, declare:

(1) Hijras,  Eunuchs,  apart  from binary gender,  be  treated  as  “third  gender”  for  the  purpose  of  safeguarding  their  rights  under  Part  III  of  our  Constitution  and  the  laws  made  by  the  Parliament and the State Legislature.  

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(2) Transgender persons’ right to decide their self- identified gender is also upheld and the Centre  and  State  Governments  are  directed  to  grant  legal  recognition of  their  gender identity such  as male, female or as third gender.   

(3)  We  direct  the  Centre  and  the  State  Governments  to  take  steps  to  treat  them  as  socially and educationally backward classes of  citizens and extend all  kinds of  reservation in  cases  of  admission  in  educational  institutions  and for public appointments.  

(4) Centre and State Governments are directed to  operate separate HIV Sero-survellance Centres  since Hijras/  Transgenders face several  sexual  health issues.   

(5) Centre and State Governments should seriously  address  the  problems  being  faced  by  Hijras/Transgenders  such  as  fear,  shame,  gender  dysphoria,  social  pressure,  depression,  suicidal tendencies, social stigma, etc. and any  insistence for SRS for declaring one’s gender is  immoral and illegal.

(6)  Centre  and  State  Governments  should  take  proper measures to provide medical care to TGs  in the hospitals and also provide them separate  public toilets and other facilities.

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(7) Centre and State Governments should also take  steps  for  framing  various  social  welfare  schemes for their betterment.

(8)  Centre  and  State  Governments  should  take  steps  to  create  public  awareness  so  that  TGs  will feel that they are also part and parcel of the  social life and be not treated as untouchables.   

(9)  Centre and the State Governments should also  take measures to regain their respect and place  in the society which once they enjoyed in our  cultural and social life.   

130.   We are informed an Expert Committee has already  

been  constituted  to  make  an  in-depth  study  of  the  

problems  faced  by  the  Transgender  community  and  

suggest measures that can be taken by the Government to  

ameliorate  their  problems and to  submit  its  report  with  

recommendations within three months of its constitution.  

Let the recommendations be examined based on the legal  

declaration made in this Judgment and implemented within  

six months.

131.     Writ Petitions are, accordingly, allowed, as above.

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…..………………………J. (K.S.  

Radhakrishnan)

………………………….J. (A.K. Sikri)

New Delhi, April 15, 2014.